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THE 

HISTORY 

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COLONIES 


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THE  HISTORY  OF  NATIONS 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE  .Phn.LL.D.,EDITOR-lN-CHIEF 

COLONIES  or  THE  WOPLD 

by 

EDWARD  JAMES  PAYNE  MA 

Revised  and  Edited  by 

PHILIP  PATTERSON  WELLSPh D 

Lecturer  in  History  and  Librarian  of  the  Law  School 
Yale  University 

THE  PHILIPPINES 

Under  American  Government 

JEREMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENK5 .  Ph  DUD 

Professor  of  Pohtical  Economy  and  Politics 
Cornell  University 

Volume   XX 


Illustrated 


The   H  .W.  Snow  and  Son  Company 

C  h   i    c    a    9'    o 


Copyright,  1907,  by 
JOHN  D.  MORRIS  &  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1910 
THE  H.  W.  SNOW  &  SON  COMPANY 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NATIONS 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE,  PkD.,  L.L.D. 

Associate  Editors  and  Authors 


ARCHIBALD  HENRY  SAYCE,  LL.D., 

Professor     of     Assyriology,     Oxford     Uni- 
versity 


SIR  ROBERT  K.  DOUGLAS. 

Professor  of  Chinese,  King's  College,  Lon- 
don 


CHRISTOPHER  JOHNSTON,  M.D..  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Oriental  History  and 
Archaeology,  Johns  Hopkins  Uiiiversity 


C.  W.  C.  OMAN,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  History,  Oxford  University 


JEREMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENKS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor   of    Political   Economy   and    Pol- 
itics, Cornell  University 


KANICHI  ASAKAWA,  Ph.D., 

Instructor    in    the     History    of    Japanese 
Civilization,  Yale  University 


THEODOR  MOMMSEN, 

Late   Professor   of   Ancient    History.    Uni- 
versity of  Berlin 


ARTHUR  C.  HOWLAND,  Ph.D., 

Department  of  History,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania 


WILFRED  HAROLD  MUNRO,  Ph.D., 

Professor    of    European    History,    Brown 

University 


G.  MERCER  ADAM, 

Historian  and  Editor 


FRED  MORROW  FLING,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  European  History,  Uni\ersity 
of  Nebraska 


CHARLES  MERIVALE,  LL.D., 

Late    Dean    of   Ely.    formerly    Lecturer   in        FRANCOIS  AUGUSTE  MARIE  MIGNET. 


History,  Cambridge  University 


Late  Member  of  the  French  Academy 


J.  HIGGINSON  CABOT,  Ph.D.. 

Department  of    History,  Wellesley  College 


JAMES  WESTFALL  THOMPSON,  Ph.D., 

Department     of     History,     University     of 
Chicago 


SIR  WILLIAM  W.  HUNTER,  F.R.S., 

Latie  Director-General  of  Statistics  in  India 


SAMUEL  RAWSON  GARDINER.  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Modern   History,   King's  Col- 
lege. London 


GEORGE  M.  DUTCHER,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  History,  Wesleyan  University 


R.  W.  JOYCE,  LL.D., 

Commissioner   for    the    Publication   of   the 
Ancient  Laws  of  Ireland 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  AND   AUTHORS-ConUnued 


JUSTIN  McCarthy,  ll.d.. 

Author  and  Historian 


PAUL  LOUIS  LEGER. 

Professor  of  the  Slav   Languages,   C<Sllege 
de  France 


AUGUSTUS  HUNT  SHEARER.  Ph.D.. 

Instructor    in     History,     Trinity    College.        WILLIAM  E.  LINGLEBACH.  Ph.D., 

Hartford  Assistant   Professor  of  European   History, 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

W.  HAROLD  CLAFLIN,  B.A., 

Department    of     History,     Harvard     Uni-        BAYARD  TAYLOR, 


versity 


Former  United  States  Minister  to  Germany 


CHARLES  DANDLIKER.  LL.D., 

President  of  Zurich  University 


SIDNEY  B.  FAY,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of   History.    Dartmouth   College 


ELBERT  JAY  BENTON,  Ph.D.. 

Dartment 
Jniversity 


Department  of  History,   Western  Reserve 

Ur 


SIR  EDWARD  S.  CREASY. 

Late  Professor  of  History,  University  Col- 
lege, London 

ARCHIBALD  CARY  COOLIDGE.  Ph.D., 

Assistant    Professor    of    History,    Harvard 
University 

WILLIAM  RICHARD  MORFILL,  M.A., 

Professor   of    Russian    and   other   Slavonic 
Languages,  Oxford  University 

CHARLES  EDMUND  FRYER,  Ph.D., 

Department  of  History,   McGill  University 

E.  C.  OTTE. 

Specialist  on  Scandinavian  History 

EDWARD  S.  CORWIN.  Ph.D., 

Instructor     in      History,      Princeton     Uni- 
versity 


J.  SCOTT  KELTIE.  LL.D., 

President  Royal  Geographical  Society 


ALBERT  GALLOWAY  KELLER.  Ph.D.. 

Assistant   Professor  of  the  Science  of  So- 
ciety, Yale  University 


EDWARD  JAMES  PAYNE.  M.A.. 

Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford 

PHILIP  PATTERSON  WELLS.  Ph.D., 

Lecturer  in   History  and   Librarian  of  the 
Law  School,  Yale  University 


FREDERICK  ALBION  OBER. 

Historian,  Author  and  Traveler 


JAMES  WILFORD  GARNER.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of   Political   Science,    University 
of  Illinois 


JOHN  BACH  McMASTER,  Litt.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of   History,   University  of  Penn- 
sylvania 


JAMES  LAMONT  PERKINS,   Managing  Editor 


The  editors  and  publishers  de.sire  to  express  their  appreciation  for  valuable 

advice  and  suggestions  received  from  the  following:     Hon.  Andrew  D.  White, 

LL.D.,  Alfred  Thayer  Mah.a.n,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Mon.  Charles  Emory  Smith, 

LL.D.,    Professor    Edward    Gaylord    Bourne,    Ph.D.,    Charles    F.    Thwikg, 

LL.D.,    Dr.    Emil    Reich,    William    Elliot   Griffis,    LL.D.,   Professor  John 

Martin  Vincent,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Melvil  Dewey,  LL.D.,  .'Vlston  Ellis,  LL.D., 

Professor  Charles  H.  McCarthy,  Ph.D.,  Professor  Herman  V.  Ames,  Ph.D., 

Professor  Walter  L.  Flemixc,  Ph.D.,  Professor  David  Y.  Thomas,  Ph.D., 

Mr.  Otto  Reich  and  Mr.  O.  M.  Dickerson. 

vii 


PREFACE 

In  this  edition  the  chapters  relating-  to  the  history  of  the  Latin 
American  republics  since  their  independence  have  been  omitted 
to  adapt  the  volume  to  this  series.  Their  place  has  been  supplied 
by  a  short  account  of  the  oversea  colonial  expansion  of  the  Euro- 
pean powers  and  of  the  United  States  since  the  issue  of  the  first 
edition.  The  wonderful  internal  colonization  of  the  West  by  the 
United  States  and  of  Siberia  by  Russia  lies  outside  of  our  field. 
The  far-reaching  changes  of  the  thirty  years  have  put  colonization 
in  a  new  light  and  made  necessary  many  changes  in  the  portion  of 
the  original  edition  which  has  been  retained,  and  the  present  editor 
is  alone  responsible  for  the  text  now  printed.  I  take  this  opportu- 
nity to  gratefully  acknowledge  the  helpful  suggestions  and  advice 
which  I  have  received  from  my  colleagues,  Professors  Edward  G. 
Bourne  and  Albert  G.  Keller. 


Yale  University 


PART    I 

RISE   AND   DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE   OLD    COLONIAL 
SYSTEM.     1450-1800 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Old  Europe  and  New  Europe         ....       3 

11.  Portuguese  and  Spanish  Colonies.     1450-1580        .     33 

III.  The  Dutch  and  English  Settlements,     i 580-1702     55 

66 
81 
91 


IV.  The  Plantations.     1600-1775 
V.  New  France  and  New  England.     1500-1777  . 
VI.  The  Missions.     1500- 1775        .... 
VII.  The  Middle  Period  in  Colonial  History.     1600-1750    99 


VIII.  The  Period  of  English  Supremacy.     1750-1775 
IX,  The  American  Revolution.     1776  . 
X.  The  French  Revolution.     1789 


PART    II 

THE   MODERN   ERA   OF   COLONIAL   HISTORY.   1800-1910 

XL  Canada  and  Newfoundland  .... 
XII.  British  Colonies  in  the  South  Sea.     1800-1910 

XIII.  South  Africa.     1800-1910       .... 

XIV.  British  Dependencies.     1800-1910  . 
XV.  Colonial  Empire  of  France.     1800-1910  . 

X\T.  The  Dutch  Colonial  Empire.     1800-1910 
XVII.  Minor  European  Possessions.     1800-1910 
XVIII.  Colonies  and  Dependencies  of  the  United  States 
1867-1910     ....... 

XIX.  The  Outlook  ...... 

The  Philippine  Islands  under  American  Government 

P>inLIOGRAPIIY     ........ 

Index.      ......... 


117 
127 
136 


149 
180 
218 

235 
268 
285 
297 

304 
334 

353 

395 

413 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Captain  of  the  "  Mother  of  God  "  Surrenders 
TO  THE  English  Admiral.      {Photogravure) 

Hispano-Americans  Following  the  Chase 
Cham  plain  Surrenders  Quebec  to  Admiral  Kirke 
Death  of  General  Wolfe     ..... 
The  Embarkation  of  the  Acadians 
Sir  George  Simpson  Establishing  his  First  Council 
Autochtons  of  New  Zealand     .... 
The  Battle  of  Majuba  Hill       .... 
Storming  of  Hue  by  Admiral  Courbet 


Frontispiece 

FACING   PAGE 

24 

82 

118 

160 

168 

210 

230 
273 


TEXT  MAPS 

Progress  of  Portuguese  Discovery 
]\Iartix  Behaim's  Map  of  the  World    . 
Spanish   America         .... 
Portuguese  East  Indies.    X\'Prii  Century 
West  Indies  ..... 

New  France  and  New  England.  . 
India.     1800  ..... 

British  Colonies  in  the  South  Seas  . 
South  Africa  ..... 
British  Africa  ..... 
French  Africa  ..... 
Fast  Indies.  1906  .... 
German  Territory  in  the  Eastern  IIE^rISPHERE 
Philippine  Islands       ..... 


PAGE. 

34 

3^> 
44 
47 
67 

83 
144 
181 
219 

257 
277 
287 
301 

315 


PART  I 

RISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OLD 

COLONIAL  SYSTEM 

1450-1800 


COLONIES  OF  THE  WORLD 

Chapter    I 

OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE 

THE  history  that  we  are  going  to  write  is  a  singular  one. 
Most  histories  consist  in  putting  together  the  events  of 
some  cycle  that  is  past  and  gone.  Such  are  the  histories 
of  the  ancient  empires  of  western  Asia,  of  Egypt,  of  the  people 
of  Israel,  of  the  Greek  Repuhlics,  and  of  Rome.  Otlier  histories 
deal  with  some  cycle  of  events  that  is  still  going  on,  hut  is  ad- 
vanced enough  to  be  completely  defined  in  its  tendency,  and  in 
the  bearing  on  each  other  of  the  events  it  includes.  Such  are  the 
histories  of  the  existing  nations  of  the  Old  Wf-rld.  "Fhe  history 
that  we  are  going  to  write  deals  with  a  cycle  of  events  that  has 
hardly  yet  begun.  Other  histories  commonly  deal  witli  events  that 
have  happened  mostly  in  some  one  definite  space  on  the  earth's 
face;  the  events  of  the  present  history  are  scattered  all  over  it. 
Most  histories  treat  of  a  single  people  or  group  of  peoples :  the 
present  history,  though  it  has  mainly  to  do  with  the  peoples  of 
W^estern  Europe,  has  something  to  do  with  almost  every  people  that 
exists  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  main  events  of  this  history 
are  not  easy  to  apprehend  as  a  whole,  partly  because  they  stand 
very  near  to  us  in  time,  and  ])artly  because  they  have  happened 
very  far  from  us  and  from  each  other  in  space,  so  that  altogether 
we  shall  have  to  get  out  of  many  of  our  settled  habits  of  thinking 
about  history,  or  at  least  we  must  not  think  of  comparing  this 
history  with  such  histories  as  those  of  Greece  and  I'jigland  in 
all  their  completeness.  The  history  we  are  going  to  wriie  is  that 
of  the  '*  new  ''  Europe,  that  is.  of  Europe  beyond  seas;  of  America, 
Australia,  South  Africa,  and  other  places  where  European  com- 
munities are  growing  up  away  from  their  native  soil.  These  na- 
tions are  colonies,  or  offshoots,  of  the  old  Europe :  and  they  have 
been  planted  at  different  times  within  the  last  four  hundred  years. 
To  the  historian  this  is  but  a  short  space  of  time.  This  world  of 
nations  that  we  are  t^'oin"-  to  write  about  is  an  infant  world:    and 


4  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

the  history  we  are  going  to  write  is  something  hke  what  a  history 
of  the  Jews  would  have  been  in  the  time  of  Joshua,  or  a  history 
of  Greece  in  the  time  of  Agamemnon,  or  the  history  of  England 
in  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great.  But  it  is  on  a  much  bigger  scale 
than  any  of  these ;  it  is  in  fact  on  about  as  big  a  scale  as  the  history 
of  anything  upon  this  globe  can  possibly  be.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  main  changes  which  have  directed  the  course  of  the  present 
history  are  few  in  number  and  easily  remembered,  so  that  if  we 
once  understand  them  well,  half  the  difficulty  of  the  business  will 
be  over.  Although  this  history  drops  at  length  into  the  common 
historical  forms,  and  deals  with  generals  and  emperors,  ministers 
and  parties,  revolutions  and  constitutions,  we  shall  find  that  for 
a  long  time  it  is  chiefly  a  history  of  the  ventures  of  merchants  and 
planters,  and  that  its  mainsprings  are  navigation  and  trade.  After 
an  episode  or  two  of  mediaeval  conquest,  it  will  turn  to  a  history 
of  commercial  navigation;  of  the  quest  of  spices  and  metals, 
coffee  and  sugar,  wool  and  hides.  Its  leading  types,  such  as  the 
quick-witted  Athenian  is  for  the  history  of  Greece,  and  the  Nor- 
man baron  in  the  midst  of  his  liege  men  for  the  history  of  England, 
will  be  the  grave  merchant  of  Amsterdam,  or  Bristol,  or  Lisbon, 
in  his  counting-house ;  the  bronzed  skipper,  lading  his  unwieldy 
hulk  in  the  Indian  roadstead ;  the  Western  planter  among  his 
canes,  and  the  half-breed  miner  toiling  on  the  slopes  of  the  South 
American  Cordillera.  As  we  go  on  we  shall  see  these  things  exer- 
cising a  surprising  change  upon  European  ideas.  We  shall  see  a 
mediaeval  military  order  turning  West  Indian  planters;  religious 
bodies  founding  American  states ;  the  European  world  leaving  off 
fighting  for  religion,  and  fighting  for  sugar  hogsheads  instead; 
the  outcasts  of  the  Batavian  marshes  suddenly  becoming  the  first 
nation  in  Europe,  and  The  Hague  the  center  of  the  world's  di- 
plomacy; the  humble  trade-guild  grown  into  the  rich  and  power- 
ful commercial  company,  and  the  commercial  company  speedily 
transformed  into  a  sovereign  power,  holding  in  its  hands  the  welfare 
of  millions.  We  shall  see  revolutions  in  national  finance,  feel 
the  social  balance  of  old  kingdoms  displaced  by  colonial  wealth, 
and  listen  to  dreams  of  making  the  fortune  of  everybody  in  the 
old  Europe  at  the  expense  of  the  new.  We  shall  see  the  old  Europe 
finally  wax  fat  and  du.l1  with  its  unnatural  prosperity,  and  the  face 
of  affairs  change:  tlie  decline  of  the  old  Europe  now  becomes  the 
rise  of  the  new.     W^e  shall  then  see  colonial  empires,  built  up  by 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE    5 

generations  of  acute  statesmen,  totter  to  tlieir  ruin,  and  two  of 
the  proudest  monarchies  the  world  has  ever  seen  humbled  in  the 
dust  one  after  the  other  before  their  outlawed  subjects.  We  shall 
see  a  revolution  of  races — the  despised  neg'ro  expelling  his  master 
from  the  fairest  regions  of  the  earth,  which  he  had  been  forced 
thither  to  cultivate  like  a  beast  of  labor,  and  asserting  for  himself 
a  place  among  civilized  nations :  and  even  the  American  Indian 
rising  up  at  last  to  shake  off  the  control  of  the  priest  and  the  gov- 
ernment official.  We  shall  see  political  movements  derived  from 
the  Old  World  reflected  on  a  vaster  scale  in  the  New ;  and  the 
beginnings  made  of  a  history  whose  development  the  wisest  can- 
not forecast.  These  beginnings  are  all  that  we  can  study;  but, 
if  we  please,  we  can  study  them  very  thoroughly.  For  the  whole 
of  this  history  has  taken  place  since  the  invention  of  printing. 
Records  have  been  kept  of  it  in  abundance ;  and  the  historian  of 
new  Europe  will  be  the  first  historian  who  goes  to  work  armed 
completely  with  facts. 

W'e  have  said  that  to  gain  a  proper  idea  of  tliis  cycle  of  events 
we  shall  have  to  travel  a  long  way  from  our  everyday  historical 
point  of  view.  First,  we  must  figure  to  ourselves  the  peoples  of 
w'estern  Europe  as  a  group  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 
Somewhere  about  three  thousand  years  ago  certain  peoples  be- 
longing to  what  is  called  the  Aryan  family  of  peoples  started 
westward  from  the  plateaus  of  central  Asia,  and  wandered  into 
the  southern  parts  of  that  great  Asiatic  peninsula  which  is  called 
Europe.  Others  followed  tlicm,  and  settled  in  tlie  middle  and 
northern  parts  of  the  peninsula,  and  constitute  the  beginnings 
of  the  Greek,  Roman,  Celtic,  and  Teutonic  peoples.  Little  is 
known  about  this  exodus  or  out-wandering  of  the  Aryans,  but  it 
is  the  main  event  which  leads  up  to  another  great  event  which 
happened  above  two  thousand  years  afterward,  and  is  the  begin- 
ning of  the  history  we  are  about  to  write.  As  the  exodus  by  land 
of  the  western  Aryans  is  to  the  history  of  Greece,  Rome,  and 
modern  Europe,  so  is  the  exodus  by  sea  of  the  western  Europeans 
to  the  historv  of  the  new  nations  tliat  are  now  settled  on  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Those  of  these  western  Aryans 
who  afterward  became  the  m>)^t  famous  had  settled  on  the  shores 
of  what  was  to  them  a  vast  inland  sea.  To  us  who  know  the  map 
of  the  world,  the  ?\Iediterrancan  seems  but  a  creek  in  the  great 
ocean;  in  these  ck'n'S  people  perhaps  consider  too  little  how  much 


6  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

the  great  world  is  indebted  to  this  inland  sea  for  its  progress. 
Here,  during  many  centuries,  certain  of  these  peoples  practiced 
and  improved  the  art  of  navigation,  which  they  learned  from  the 
Egyptians,  that  ancient  people  who  already  had  lived  for  centuries 
on  the  banks  of  tlie  river  Xile.  These  peoples  traveled  about  on  its 
tideless  waters  in  fair  weather  with  ease:  following  the  example  of 
the  Phoenicians,  another  Asiatic  people,  they  began  to  trade  with 
their  neighbors,  and  to  make  settlements  for  themselves  on  other 
promising  sliores ;  and  thus  on  a  small  scale  these  western  Aryan 
peoples  did  on  the  Mediterranean  what  the  western  European  peo- 
ples afterward  did  on  the  Atlantic.  The  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
have  been  the  school  of  the  world.  It  was  here  that  most  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  were  first  cultivated,  and  the  first  commercial 
supremacy  was  established.  Commercial  supremacy  is  always  shift- 
ing, or  tending  to  shift,  from  one  nation  to  another,  and  the  change 
in  commercial  supremacy  is  generally  followed  by  a  corresponding- 
change  in  the  supremacy  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Such  a  change, 
on  a  great  scale,  followed  the  enterprise  of  the  western  European 
peoples  on  the  Atlantic.  Ever  since  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  lead  of  the  world  in  everything  has  been  gradually  transfer- 
ring itself  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic ;  first  to  the  western  shores 
of  Europe,  and  thence  to  the  eastern  shores  of  America.  Hitherto, 
partly  through  the  contrivances  of  statesmen,  partly  through  the 
natural  laws  which  guide  the  growth  and  intercourse  of  peoples, 
a  strong  connection  has  been  maintained  between  Europe  and  the 
New  World.  Europe  is  still  giving  out  to  America  as  fast  as  she 
can  her  stores  of  capital,  population,  knowledge,  and  skill.  Every 
day  America  from  north  to  south,  is  becoming  more  and  more  like 
the  old  Europe ;  and  the  old  Europe  has  been  at  the  same  time 
deriving  some  substantial  benefits  in  exchange.  The  new  Europe 
has  developed  an  abundance  of  public  spirit,  and  a  steady  and  rapid 
determination  for  social  and  civil  progress  which  has  reacted  power- 
fully upon  the  old.  The  circulation  of  life  goes  on  there  faster, 
and  on  a  bigger  scale.  The  nations  are  more  fused  into  a  whole ; 
and  what  cultivation  and  improvement  America  gets  sinks  quickly 
through  the  entire  people.  America  has  shown  Europe  how  to 
educate  the  wliole  nation ;  liow  to  organize  political  action  in  a 
peaceful  way  over  an  immense  area ;  how  to  economize  labor. 
The  second  era  of  European  history,  that  of  a  substantial  connec- 
ilon  between  new  Eurc.pc  and  old  lun-ope,  is  still  subsisting.     Prob- 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE    7 

ably  it  will  not  subsist  always.  Just  as  the  new  Europe  has  won  its 
political  independence,  it  will  no  doubt  in  the  course  of  time  drift 
into  moral  and  social  independence.  Within  a  brief  period  of  time 
there  will  be  two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  English-speak- 
ing people  in  the  United  States  alone.  This  must  necessarily  work 
some  great  change  in  the  relations  of  the  Old  World  and  the  New, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  guess  what  or  how  great  that  change  will  be. 
Between  the  exodus  of  the  western  Arj^ans  to  Europe  and 
that  of  the  western  Europeans  to  America  comes  a  third  fact  of 
the  highest  importance  in  this  history:  the  growth  of  the  great 
Roman  Empire,  which  began  about  two  thousand  years  ago.  It 
was  the  Romans  who  first  found  out  how  to  govern  not  only  w^th 
firmness,  but  on  just  and  rational  principles;  and  we  know  well 
how  much  our  modern  civilization  owes  in  various  ways  to  Rome. 
The  empire  of  the  Romans  strengthened  the  European  races;  it 
gave  birth,  in  fact,  to  modern  Europe ;  and  the  main  division  in  the 
history  which  we  are  about  to  write  springs  directly  from  the  shape 
which  was  given  to  it.  The  Roman  Empire  spread  over  Europe 
by  several  stages.  It  decayed  when  it  was  at  its  biggest,  and  there- 
fore those  nations  which  had  come  last  within  its  boundaries  had 
least  of  its  character  impressed  upon  them.  Now  Spain.  Portugal, 
and  Erance,  three  of  the  nations  with  which  we  shall  have  to  do, 
came  under  it  in  comparatively  early  times.  They  all  got  thor- 
oughly Romanized,  and  their  language,  laws,  customs,  and  govern- 
ment, to  this  day  bear  the  stamp  of  that  mighty  old  people  which 
contributed  so  much  to  the  formation  of  modern  Europe.  But 
there  were  branches  of  the  western  Aryans  whom  the  Romans 
could  never  subdue.  These  were  tlie  peoples  who  had  settled,  as 
we  have  said,  in  the  middle  parts  of  Europe.  They  were  mostly 
of  what  is  called  the  Teutonic  or  (ierman  branch;  and  while  the 
peoples  of  southern  lunTjpe  were  being  molded  like  clay  by  the 
genius  of  Rome,  these  Teutonic  peoples  kept  tlieir  primitive  life, 
which  was  not  far  removed  from  that  (^f  their  ancestors  when 
they  dwelt  by  the  streams  wliich  are  fed  by  tlie  snows  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh.  Out  of  this  Teutonic  brancli  came  the  English 
and  the  Dutch;  peoples  rougher,  stronger,  and  more  in(lci:)en(lent 
than  those  which  had  been  cast  in  the  Roman  mold.  We  have  thus 
two  predominant  types  in  the  western  nations,  tlie  Teutonic  and  the 
RiMuanized.  or  as  scimc  c;i!l  il'.cni.  fi-om  the  speech  whicli  the 
Romans   had    taught   them,    the    "  Latin  "    [)eople^.      This    is    not 


8  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

strictly  correct :  for  by  "  Latin  "  the  Romans  meant  the  very  op- 
posite of  that  vulgar  Italian  tongue  which  was  the  basis  of  the 
speech  of  what  we  call  the  Latin  peoples.  It  is  for  want  of  a 
better  name  that  we  call  the  non-Teutonic  colonial  nations  the 
"  Latin  "  nations.  We  must  not,  however,  suppose  that  this  divi- 
sion is  a  hard  and  fast  one.  The  organization  of  the  Italian  re- 
publics of  the  Middle  Ages  has  nothing  of  the  "  Latin  "  character 
about  it;  and  these  republics  exercised  a  strong  influence  on  the 
political  growth  of  England  and  Holland.  The  people  of  northern 
France  and  Spain,  the  hardy  Norman  sailors  who  sailed  off  to  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Biscayans  who  followed  an  adventurous 
leader  round  the  stormy  Horn,  and  colonized  Chile,  were  more  like 
the  English  and  Dutch  than  the  churchmen  and  lawyers  who  shaped 
the  destinies  of  New  Spain ;  and  the  English  and  Dutch  also  bor- 
rowed certain  ideas  on  government  and  commerce  from  the  Latin 
peoples,  especially  that  famous  one  of  confining  the  trade  of  their 
colonies  to  the  mother  country,  which  for  so  many  j^ears  hindered 
the  growth  of  the  New  World.  In  the  later  stage  of  history,  since 
this  system  has  been  abolished,  the  old  contrast  of  the  Teutonic 
and  the  Latin  type  has  shone  out  more  strongly  than  ever;  and  as 
events  have  gone  far  enough  to  show  that  the  Teutonic  race  has 
done  better  in  the  New  World  than  any  other,  the  Latin  peoples  have 
of  late  years  been  assimilating  themselves  to  it  as  fast  as  they 
can.  Some  of  the  legacies  of  the  Roman  Empire  nevertheless  re- 
main among  the  Latin  peoples  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  liberalizing  the  Latin  peoples,  that  is,  of 
converting  them  to  the  English  or  Teutonic  standard,  lies  in  a 
stereotyped  oligarchical  government,  standing  armies,  and  cler- 
icalism :  and  all  these  are  legacies  in  one  way  or  another  of  the 
Roman  Empire  to  the  Latin  peoples. 

If  we  take  a  general  survey  of  history,  we  find  that  of  all  types 
of  mankind  the  European  type  stands  highest.  As  this  type  lias 
determined  the  form  of  the  history  we  are  going  to  write,  we  must 
say  from  what  it  proceeds.  Europe  is  a  moral  essence,  not  a  name 
denoting  race  or  locality.  Tlie  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  peoples, 
who  are  not  of  Aryan  descent,  are  entirely  European  in  tlieir 
character.  These  peoples  have  indeed  contributed  on  the  whole 
])erhaps  as  much  as  Greece  itself  lo  tlie  formation  of  what  is  called 
the  European  ty])e.  The  Phrenicians  taught  Ennme  the  arts  of 
trade  and  colonization.     It  was  tJiey  who  performed  the  most  ex- 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE    9 

traordinary  feat  in  ancient  history,  the  circumnavigation  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  above  two  thousand  years  before  Vasco  da 
Gama ;  ^  and  we  may  be  sure  that  without  the  struggle  with  Car- 
thage Rome  would  never  have  played  so  important  a  part  in  history. 
The  more  we  think  about  the  Phoenicians,  the  more  we  see  how 
much  Europe  owes  to  this  extraordinary  people.  Of  them  we 
learned  to  read  and  write:  it  is  literally  true  that  the  Phcenicians 
taught  Europe  its  ABC.  Nearly  three  thousand  years  ago  Phce- 
nicia  was  to  the  world  of  the  Mediterranean  very  much  what  Eng- 
land in  our  age  became  to  that  of  the  Atlantic;  everywhere  she 
exported  her  manufactures  of  wool,  bronze,  pottery,  and  glass,  and 
waxed  rich  and  powerful  by  the  exchange.  To  the  fine  genius  of 
the  Hebrew  people  Europe  ow-es  still  more.  Though  learned  men 
have  argued  that  the  primitive  Aryans  had  originally  a  belief  in  one 
God,  all  that  we  know  of  them  proves  their  religious  instincts  to 
have  been  essentially  polytheistic.  Europe  is  indebted  to  the 
Hebrews  for  that  great  and  profound  religious  conception  which 
has  for  fifteen  hundred  years  and  more  been  an  inseparable  part 
of  its  being.  We  cannot  conceive  Europe  without  Christianity. 
Though  we  shall  be  able  to  say  but  little  of  the  spread  of  the  great 
European  religion  in  the  new  Europe,  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  this  religion,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  went  with  the 
European  settlers  everywhere.  The  organization  of  the  Flebrev/ 
republic,  as  described  in  the  Pentateuch,  is  one  of  tlie  most  interest- 
ing and  important  facts  in  the  history  of  politics.  It  reveals  a 
moral  type  which  has  nothing  Asiatic  about  it ;  whereas  the  politi- 
cal ideas  of  the  Aryan  jMcdes  and  Persians  are  as  Asiatic  in 
essence  as  can  be.  We  must  tlnjroughiy  realize  what  a  mixed 
essence  European  character  really  is.  It  has  spread  easily  enough 
to  the  races  of  the  New  World ;  there  are  many  thousands  of  people 
scattered  over  the  world,  of  negro  and  Indian  descent,  who  are 
quite  as  European  as  the  n>)st  fair-haired  German,  wliereas  the 
Hindoos  and  Parsees  of  the  Iiast.  who  are  of  the  same  family  of 
nations  as  the  German,  li;ive  nothing  Ivaropcan  about  them  except 
what  they  have  picked  up  of  late  years  from  the  English.  This 
is  not  the  place  to  resolve  the  Juu^opean  type  of  character  into  its 
elements ;  let  us  only  ntjtice  that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  race,  but  of 

^  This  refers  to  the  expedition  sent  out  by  Xeelios,  Kiw^  of  Egypt,  about 
600  B.  c.  The  evidence  that  it  circumnavigated  Africa  is  not  conclusive.  It 
probably  went  beyond  the  equator. 


10  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

physical  and  moral  habits,  of  climate,  of  laws,  of  manners  and 
customs.  It  is  almost  as  difficult  to  describe  the  European  type 
outwardly  as  to  resolve  it  into  its  elements.  It  is  easier  to  say 
what  it  is  not,  and  to  reflect  it  by  means  of  its  contraries.  It  may 
be  abstracted  from  the  histories  of  Greece,  and  Rome,  and  Eng- 
land ;  but,  whatever  it  is,  it  has  varied  but  little  in  its  transfer  from 
the  old  Europe  to  the  new.  The  people  of  the  old  and  the  new 
Europe  are  equally  at  home  in  either;  and  the  superiority  of  the 
European  over  the  non-European  races  has  everywhere  been  main- 
tained. The  European  peoples,  though  insignificant  in  numbers 
by  the  side  of  the  countless  millons  of  the  non-European  races,  hold 
the  keys  of  the  earth,  and  onh'-  let  in  the  non-European  peoples  as 
they  please  into  its  best  parts.  Exception  must  be  made  of  the 
Japanese,  who  have  adopted  European  methods  and  shown  an 
efficiency  and  capacity  at  least  equal  to  that  of  Europeans.  Some 
people  think  that  the  Chinese,  the  most  populous  people  in  the 
world,  will  put  an  end  to  this  European  ascendency  when  they  have 
learned  from  Europe  how  to  use  their  strength ;  it  is  more  likely 
that  before  that  time  the  Europeans  will  outnumber  the  Chinese. 

Down  to  the  end  of  tlie  fifteenth  century,  when  this  history 
begins,  the  commercial  navigation  of  Europe  was  almost  confined 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  At  the  epoch  in  question,  Europe  as  a 
whole  had  just  emerged  from  a  long  struggle  with  a  powerful 
Asiatic  element.  The  Saracens  had  fallen  upon  Europe  in  a  period 
of  exhaustion ;  and  but  for  a  deep  background  of  Teutonic  strength 
perhaps  the  composite  luu-opean  character  which  liad  been  so  many 
centuries  in  forming  would  have  been  crushed  out  of  history.  In 
commerce  and  navigation  tliere  had  been  a  distinct  decay  since  the 
times  of  the  Phrxmicians.  We  know  that  in  those  times  ships  traded 
regularly,  not  only  with  the  African  coast  far  beyond  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  but  with  the  British  Islands.  With  the  ascendency 
oi  Rome  this  commerce  declined.  A  revival  of  navigation  came 
with  the  migrations  of  those  Tetitonic  nations  which  swept  over 
the  ruins  of  the  empire.  The  barks  of  the  men  of  the  north  now 
often  rotmded  the  western  coasts  of  Europe  on  their  way  to  the 
■Mediterranean,  where  they  found  nearly  the  whole  of  the  com- 
mercial navigation  by  this  time  in  the  hands  of  Arabs,  or,  as  they 
were  more  often  called,  "  floors."  But  the  navigation  of  this 
Teutonic  people  was  not  at  all  commercial  in  its  character.  They 
coasted  about  in  light  vessels,  landing  now  and  then  for  plimder 


OLD  EUROTE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   IT 

wherever  they  thought  it  Hkcly  to  be  got.  But  they  did  not  con- 
fine themselves  to  coasting.  With  what  exact  instinct  we  can  only 
dimly  guess,  they  set  their  sails  northward  and  westward,  and  in 
this  way  discovered  Iceland,  Greenland,  Newfoundland,  and  the 
continent  of  America  itself  nearly  five  hundred  years  before  it  was 
visited  by  Columbus.  But  tliis  discovery,  though  it  undoubtedly 
took  place,  has  no  historical  significance ;  all  the  importance  of 
the  Teutonic  sailors  consists  in  tlie  fact  that  through  them  the 
ports  of  western  Europe  came  to  be  found  out.  The  people  of 
western  Europe  no  doubt  improved  in  the  art  of  navigation  by 
having  to  repel  the  attacks  of  the  Northmen;  and  we  know  that 
about  the  period  when  this  history  commences  the  people  of 
Portugal  became  expert  in  this  art  from  repelling  the  attacks  of 
the  Moors.  From  the  time  of  Charlemagne  to  that  of  Columbus 
the  hardy  peoples  of  Spain,  France,  and  England  gradually  became 
at  home  on  the  seas  which  washed  their  shores.  But  there  was 
little  trade  here.  The  great  trade  of  the  world,  that  of  Europe  with 
India,  was  carried  on  overland  through  western  Asia  or  Egypt, 
and  thence  by  sea  to  the  ports  of  Italy,  which  remained  its  main 
inlets  for  continental  Europe.  In  those  times  the  European  world 
knew  nothing  of  the  real  shape  or  extent  of  the  African  continent. 
They  believed  it  to  be  an  oblong  mass  of  land,  terminating  about 
the  Equator :  and  it  was  natural  for  the  people  of  western  Europe, 
as  soon  as  they  understood  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  traffic 
that  was  carried  on  between  Europe  and  the  East,  to  try  to  sail 
to  the  East  for  themselves.  The  Portuguese,  as  we  shall  see,  after 
a  century  of  exploration,  succeeded  in  doing  this;  but  the  immortal 
Columbus  had  in  tlie  meantime  made  a  greater  discovery.  By  a 
bold  course  of  reasoning,  which  we  shall  explain  in  its  place,  he  had 
satisfied  himself  that  the  Portuguese  were  not  going  about  in  the 
shortest  way,  and.  in  following  out  his  own  plan,  he  stumbled  first 
upon  the  West  India  Islands  and  tlien  on  the  cc^ntincnt  of  America. 
The  change  tliat  followed  was  (Mie  of  tlie  greatest  and  certainly 
the  most  important  in  its  results  that  has  ever  happened.  The 
western  nations  were  by  this  time  ready  for  it;  and  the  enterprise 
of  Europe  was  now  transferred  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Atlantic.  The  day  of  Italy  and  Germany  and  western  Asia  was 
over;  and  the  time  of  western  Europe  was  come.  Eastward  to 
the  old  Indies,  and  westward  to  the  new  the  ships  of  all  these 
nations  soon  poured  in  an  unceasing  stream.    There  had  never  been 


12  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

such  a  ferment  in  Europe  as  at  this  time.  There  was  a  great 
revival  in  art  and  learning;  the  old  religious  tyranny  was  crumb- 
ling away  over  half  the  Catholic  world;  the  western  nations  were 
just  becoming  conscious  of  their  native  strength  and  resources ; 
and  just  at  this  moment  two  boundless  fields  were  opened  for 
them  in  the  East  and  West.  Within  a  few  years  adventurers  of 
all  sorts  swarmed  fearlessly  over  the  Atlantic;  and  the  fact  of 
this  great  discovery  sank  deep  into  the  mind  of  Europe.  England, 
as  we  shall  see,  was  not  behindhand.  In  an  old  play,  written  soon 
after  the  discovery  of  America,  Experience,  one  of  the  personages, 
speaking  of  the  Atlantic,  says :  "  This  sea  is  called  the  Great 
(Dcean.  So  great  it  is,  that  never  man  could  tell  it  since  the  world 
began  till  near  within  these  twenty  years.  Westward  we  found 
new  lands  that  we  never  heard  tell  of  before  this,  by  writing  nor 
other  means.  Yet  many  now  have  been  there.  And  that  country 
is  so  large  of  room,  much  larger  than  all  Christendom,  without 
fable  or  guile ;  for  divers  mariners  have  it  tried,  and  sailed  straight 
by  the  coast  side,  above  five  thousand  miles.  But  what  commod- 
ities be  within  no  man  can  tell  nor  well  imagine.  And  yet,  not 
long  ago,  some  men  of  this  country  went,  by  the  King's  noble  con- 
sent, it  for  to  search,  and  could  not  be  brought  thereto.  O  what 
a  great  meritorious  deed  it  were,  to  have  the  people  there  instructed 
to  live  more  virtuously,  and  to  know  of  men  the  manner,  and  also 
to  know  God  their  maker,  which  as  yet  live  all  beastly."  Peter 
Martyr  says  what  a  wonderful  exultation  of  spirits  he  felt  when 
he  conversed  with  men  who  had  been  thither,  and  how  he  felt 
like  a  miser  with  new  accessions  to  his  wealth.  The  peoples  of 
Europe  soon  began  to  contend  for  the  inheritance  of  the  New 
World.  We  shall  see  how  the  rich  spoil  was  divided  among  them, 
how  the  greatest  power  got  the  lion's  share,  how  its  power  and 
prosperity  declined,  how  both  of  the  Peninsular  nations  at  length 
dropped  out  of  the  struggle,  how  for  above  a  century  England, 
France,  and  Holland  contested  the  empire  of  the  new  Europe,  while 
the  balance  of  influence  in  the  old  Europe  was  alternating  among 
them  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  We  shall  see  how  England 
conquered  in  the  great  struggle  for  both  America  and  India,  and 
for  the  first  time  in  history  a  European  power  began  to  over- 
shadow the  oldest  and  the  newest  civilizations  in  the  world.  At  the 
same  time  the  beginnings  were  made  of  a  third  and  last  period  of 
history.     Perhaps  we  ought  not  to  describe  this  period  as  having 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   13 

yet  begun,  for  the  world  remains  at  present  in  the  Atlantic  stage. 
The  western  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  eastern  shores  of  the 
Americas,  are  at  present  the  main  bases  of  progress  and  civilized 
life;  but  explorers  soon  struck  into  the  great  ocean  beyond,  and 
a  hundred  years  ago  the  discoveries  of  Cook  made  it  clear  that  one 
day  these  bases  must  be  rivaled  by  the  lands  washed  by  the  vast 
Pacific.  We  shall  see  what  beginnings  the  Pacific  world  has  al- 
ready made. 

Across  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Central  America  the  Spanish 
explorers  quickly  found  their  way.  Along  the  Pacific  shore  lay 
the  route  to  Peru  and  Chile,  and  westward  from  it  that  to  the  true 
India;  for  two  centuries  and  more  these  seldom-traversed  routes 
were  all  that  Europe  knew  about  the  Pacific  world.  With  the 
discoveries  of  Cook  in  the  last  century  the  face  of  things  began  to 
change,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  change  was 
unmistakable.  America  and  England  had  begun  to  colonize  on 
the  west  and  east  Pacific.  A  vast  tract  of  land  which  had  been  ob- 
tained by  America  from  jMexico,  together  with  British  Columbia 
to  its  north,  on  the  eastern  shore.  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria 
on  its  western,  had  become  alike  famous  for  their  yield  of  gold. 
This  proved  the  foundation  of  a  more  substantial  prosperity.  No 
parts  of  the  world  are  richer  in  coal  and  metals  than  the  Pacific 
shores.  Through  its  metals,  Chile,  once  the  remotest  part  of  the 
world,  has  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can states ;  Japan  has  been  transformed  and  even  China  has  come  to 
feel  the  wave  of  progress,  and  European  enterprise  has  thus  circum- 
navigated the  globe.  The  countless  islands  of  the  Pacific  now 
invited  the  colonists  of  Europe;  England,  France,  and  America,  as 
we  shall  see,  have  all  in  various  ways  begun  to  colonize  them. 
The  new  Europe  in  the  Pacific  does  not  yet  belong  to  history;  but 
it  is  necessary  to  take  it  into  our  general  view  as  the  final  stage 
into  which  tlie  Europe  of  tlie  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  is 
passing.  There  are  already  many  railways  connecting  the  Atlantic 
with  the  Pacific,  and  their  connection  will  soon  be  completed  by 
tiie  intcroccanic  canril.  We  see  tlnis  tliat  the  Pacific  is  being 
brought  nearer  and  nearer  to  Europe  every  day. 

We  shall  find  that  t1ie  history  of  the  new  Europe  is  not  com- 
pletely cut  off  from  that  of  the  old.  Across  the  Atlantic  much 
tlie  same  things  were  done  as  would  have  been  done  if  the  new 
Eiu-ope  had  locally  adjoined  the  old;  and  in  this  way  the  history  of 


14  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

the  Middle  Ages  runs  on  into  that  of  America  and  India.  For  a 
whole  century  the  history  of  the  new  Europe  is  rather  mediaeval  or 
feudal  than  modern.  The  activity  which  burst  forth  on  the  newly 
discovered  lands  had  already  taken  many  and  various  shapes.  The 
most  noteworthy  of  these  is  the  Crusade.  For  two  hundred  years 
and  more  the  minds  of  people  in  Europe  had  been  familiar  with 
the  idea  of  taking  up  arms  and  fighting  against  infidels  in  a  distant 
country,  and  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  as  we  shall  see,  acted 
exactly  in  this  spirit  in  America  and  the  East.  The  Crusades  had 
gone  further  than  this.  The  adventurers  engaged  in  them  had 
founded  monarchies:  a  French  scepter  had  glittered,  though  only 
for  a  short  time,  at  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem.  The  conquests 
of  the  Portuguese  in  the  East,  more  than  any  other  part  of  this 
history,  were  a  continuation  of  the  Crusades.  It  was  everywhere 
the  Mohammedans,  or  "  Moors,"  who  were  displaced  by  these 
conquests ;  and  the  people  who  did  this  were  exactly  the  kind  of 
people  who  had  fought  in  the  Crusades.  It  is  curious  to  specu- 
late on  what  would  have  happened  if  the  world  had  gone  no  further 
at  that  time  than  to  realize  the  limited  ambition  of  the  Portuguese, 
that  of  getting  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  this  case 
the  attention  of  Europe  would  have  been  directed  more  and  more 
strongly  to  the  East.  The  tide  was  as  yet  hardly  beginning  to  turn 
against  the  Turks,  but  Europe  would  now  have  been  able  to  at- 
tack them  in  the  East  more  effectually  than  was  done  by  Albu- 
querque, and  perhaps  in  the  course  of  time  those  intruders  would 
thus  have  been  forced  northward  and  the  object  of  the  Crusades 
attained.  If  this  be  so,  the  settlement  of  the  new  Europe  insured 
the  Turks  that  hold  upon  eastern  Europe  and  western  Asia  which 
they  have  not  quitted  to  this  day.  But  colonial  history  does  n(jt 
really  depend  upon  that  compound  of  military  and  religious  en- 
terprise which  found  vent  in  the  Spanish  conquests  in  America  and 
the  Portuguese  conquests  from  the  Moors  in  India.  A  greater 
power,  called  Commerce,  had  risen  into  notice  at  the  same  time. 
\'enicc  had  grown  rich  by  her  trade  with  the  East,  and  had  even 
acquired  many  possessions  beyond  sea  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 
which  very  nearly  approached  the  character  of  modern  colonial 
possessions.  Cienoa  and  Pisa  had  begun  to  rival  Venice;  the  silk 
mamifacture  Iiad  l)ecn  established  at  Lucca  and  IHorence.  Ger- 
many liad  followed  close  in  tlie  wake  of  Italv:  nor  were  Zanders. 
England,   and    Xorthern   k^-ance   far  behind.      All   tlie  nations   of 


o  L  D    1-:  u  R  0  r  i:    a  \  n    x  e  w    e  it  r  o  i*  i:      1 5 

Europe  had  their  warehouses  at  Bruges  and  Ghent ;  the  Hanseatic 
league  had  become  a  great  power;  there  were  companies  of  mer- 
chants trading  upon  a  joint  stock  in  all  the  great  commercial 
centers.  The  spirit  of  military  enterprise  was  in  most  places  being 
fast  transmuted  into  that  of  commercial  enterprise:  and  as  we  shall 
shortly  see,  commercial  enterprise  ])rove(l  to  be  a  more  powerful 
and  lasting  force.  Commerce  produced  ships,  and  ships  led  natu- 
ally  to  exploration  and  colonization.  In  all  this  Europe  was  getting 
farther  and  farther  from  what  is  mediceval  and  Asiatic,  and  becom- 
ing, so  to  speak,  more  and  more  decidedly  European  and  modern. 
We  shall  see  how  the  colonies  in  the  end  came  to  stimulate  more 
and  more  the  commercial  spirit  in  Europe  and  almost  to  extinguish 
that  compound  of  military  and  religious  motives  which  mainly 
stimulated  the  mediaeval  nations. 

A  process  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  we  are  about  to  de- 
scribe took  place  in  the  ancient  world.  As  the  European  peoples 
have  founded  a  new  Europe,  so  the  Phoenician  and  the  Greek 
peoples,  who  first  perfected  tlie  practice  of  commerce  and  naviga- 
tion, founded  ages  ago  a  new  Plicxnicia  and  a  new  Greece  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Beyond  this  sea  they  did  not  in 
general  venture;  and  this  sea  was  to  them  what  the  ocean  afterward 
became  to  the  sailors  of  Portugal,  Spain,  Holland,  and  England. 
The  colonies  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  consisted  mainly  of 
single  towns,  Phoenician  colonization  is  divided  into  two  periods — 
the  Sidonian  and  the  Tyrian.  In  the  very  earliest  historical  times 
we  find  the  Sidonians  making  settlements  in  Cyprus,  Greece,  and 
the  Cyclades ;  Cadmus,  who  is  quite  an  historical  personage,  was  a 
Sidonian  colonist.  The  famous  Phcenician  colonies  of  Spain  be- 
long to  the  Tyrian  era.  Most  of  the  settlements  of  the  Phrcnicians 
were  merely  trading  ports  or  factories,  but  there  were  remarkable 
exceptions.  To  some  of  these  settlements  they  transplanted  a  large 
mass  of  real  emigrants  who  founded  agricultural  colonies,  like 
New  England  and  Xew  South  Wales.  One  of  these  was  the  famous 
Carthage,  which,  as  everybody  knows,  grew  so  greatly  in  wealth 
and  power  as  to  rival  the  powerful  Ivepublic  of  Rome.  To  subdue 
Carthage  cost  Rome  three  exhausting  and  bloody  wars:  but  it  was 
through  this  conquest  that  Rome  became  mistress  of  the  world. 
Carthage  grew  so  fast  in  population  as  to  become  the  mother  of 
colonies  of  her  own.  Targe  numbers  of  Phoenician  emigrants,  for 
instance,  left  Carthage  for  Turdetania  in  Spain;  and  Strabo  tells 


16  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

us  that  in  his  time  most  of  the  people  in  that  part  of  Spain  were 
of  Phoenician  blood.  The  Republic  of  Carthage  restricted  the 
trade  of  its  colonies  exactly  as  the  European  colonial  nations  did 
in  after-times.  There  is  extant  a  treaty  between  Rome  and  Car- 
thage which  prohibits  the  trading  ships  of  Rome  from  entering 
the  colonies  and  cities  of  Sardinia,  or  of  Africa  to  the  south  and 
east  of  the  original  Carthaginian  territory,  so  that  if  the  Romans 
wanted  any  of  the  productions  of  these  settlements  they  could  not 
go  and  buy  them  in  the  first  and  cheapest  market,  but  were  obliged 
to  go  and  buy  them  in  the  port  of  Carthage.  Curiously  enough, 
the  Carthaginian  portion  of  Sicily  was  excepted  from  this  primi- 
tive "  Act  of  Navigation,"  so  we  see  that  Carthage  had  in  those 
early  times  a  well-considered  colonial  policy.  With  Carthage,  just 
as  in  the  case  of  England,  the  great  colonial  trade  was  the  founda- 
tion of  a  formidable  navy,  supported  by  a  heavy  taxation.  Greek 
colonization  was  of  a  different  character.  The  Greek  colonies 
were  always  free  from  the  first,  so  that  the  mother  state  had  no 
right  to  tax  them  or  to  keep  them  in  any  kind  of  subjection.  But  the 
Greek  politicians,  who  were  often  very  unscrupulous,  sometimes  as- 
serted a  right  over  those  cities  which  had  proceeded  from  their  own, 
and  Athens  extorted  contributions  from  most  of  those  in  the  ^gean 
Sea  by  commuting  into  a  money-payment  the  service  due  from 
them  for  the  defense  of  the  Greek  race,  and  thus  made  herself  a 
great  naval  power.  The  Greek  and  Phoenician  colonies,  like  their 
mother  states,  were  absorbed  in  the  Roman  Empire,  and  every 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  in  the  end  came  to  yield  obedience  to 
one  government.  Colonization,  in  the  old  sense,  became  thence- 
forth impossible.  The  ancient  colonization  which  thus  came  to 
an  end  is  interesting  in  itself,  and  presents  analogies  with  the 
modern  which  are  well  worth  following  up,  but  it  concerns  the 
antiquary  rather  than  the  historian.  Whenever  there  have  been 
disputes  in  modern  times  between  the  new  Europe  and  the  old, 
the  ancient  colonial  policy  has  always  been  quoted.  What  the 
Phoenicians  called  their  colonies  we  do  not  know.  The  Greeks 
called  them  Apoikiai,  or  "  swarmings  from  the  old  hive."  The 
word  "colony  "  comes  to  us  from  Rome.  The  empire  of  Rome 
over  the  world  was  won  by  her  great  armies.  The  general,  or 
"  emperor  "  of  these  armies  often  provided  for  his  veterans  by 
granting  them  lands  in  the  conquered  countries,  upon  which  they 
settled.     These    settlements,    which    afterward    became    military 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   17 

centers,  were  called  "  colonies."  from  the  Latin  word  colo,  to 
dwell  in  a  place  and  till  the  soil.  Relics  of  this  original  sense  of 
the  word  may  be  traced  in  such  names  as  Koln  or  Cologne  (in 
Latin,  Colonia  Agrippinensis,  Agrippina's  Colony),  and  Lincoln 
(in  Latin,  Lindorum  Colonia,  Colony  among  the  Celtic  people  of 
the  Linds).  Settlements  exactly  similar  to  these  are  made  by  the 
Russians  in  Central  Asia.  The  word  "  colony  "  is  even  now  com- 
monly used  among  the  Latin  nations  of  South  America  in  this 
sense  of  a  new  municipal  community.  But  in  English  usage  it 
means  a  colonial  country,  corresponding  rather  to  the  Dutch  word 
Volk-planting,  which  is  the  earliest  Teutonic  expression  of  the 
idea.  The  earliest  word  in  English  use  to  express  it  is  Plantation. 
Plantations,  says  Bacon,  are  among  ancient,  primitive,  heroical 
works.  This  word,  however,  has  become  restricted  to  settlements 
founded  by  planters  for  the  raising"  of  such  tropical  products  as 
sugar,  tobacco,  and  coffee,  and  the  word  "  colony,"  which  formerly 
denoted  only  a  military  settlement,  has  taken  its  place.  In  modern 
usage  the  word  "  colony  "  is  sometimes  so  restrained  in  its  ap- 
plication as  to  imply  the  continuance  of  the  relation  of  govern- 
ment between  the  new  country  and  the  old.  Thus,  while  Australia 
is  still  described  as  a  colony  of  Great  Britain,  the  term  would  in 
this  sense  be  no  longer  applied  to  the  United  States,  though  the 
latter  country,  no  less  than  the  former,  is  an  offshoot  of  Great 
Britain.  Besides  this,  English  practice  distinguishes  between  a 
colony  and  a  possession  or  dependency.  A  colony  is  a  possession 
with  a  legislature  of  its  own.  The  historian,  however,  has  to  use 
the  word  in  its  extended  sense.  The  European  colonies  include  all 
the  new  Europe  not  politically  independent. 

Wherever  European  emigrants  have  gone,  they  have  always 
found  the  land  possessed  by  native  races.  In  ^vlexico  and  Peru  the 
Spaniards  found  organized  nations  with  social  systems  of  an 
Asiatic  type.  These,  however,  occupied  no  very  large  geographical 
space;  most  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America  was  peopled 
by  savage  Indians.  In  North  America  the  French  and  English 
also  found  tribes  of  native  Indians  of  various  degrees  of  savagery. 
There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  way  in  which  the  native 
races  have  on  the  whole  been  treated  by  the  English  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  Latin  nations  on  the  other.  Wherever  the  English 
have  gone  in  America  the  native  tribes  have  step  by  step  been 
driven  back  and  ai  last  extiny-uished.      It  was  not  so  in  French 


18  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

North  America.  Partly  from  humanity,  partly  from  poHcy,  the 
French  treated  the  Indians  as  human  creatures  Hke  themselves ; 
they  intermarried  with  them,  and  did  their  best  to  incorporate  them 
into  the  Canadian  nation.  The  same  thing  happened  to  a  great 
extent  in  Spanish  America.  The  early  conquerors  indeed  cruelly 
overcame  all  attempts  at  resistance,  and  on  one  pretext  or  another 
destroyed  very  large  numbers  of  them.  This  went  on  for  at  least 
half  a  century ;  but  in  the  end  vigorous  efforts  to  protect  them  were 
made  by  the  government  at  home,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  Jesuit 
and  other  missionaries  the  Indian  tribes  were  in  some  measure 
protected  from  the  violence  of  the  colonists  and  endowed  with 
civil  rights  of  their  own.  It  is  true  that  the  laws  made  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  natives  were  not  fully  respected,  and  tales  of  cruelty 
to  the  Indians  are  common  enough  down  to  our  own  times,  both 
in  Spanish  America  and  in  Brazil.  Still,  all  over  Latin  America 
we  now  see  a  sight  that  shames  England.  We  see  old  races  every- 
where preserved,  and  during  the  last  half  century  acquiring  the 
civilization  and  civil  rights  of  Europeans.  In  some  other  parts 
the  extinction  of  the  native  races  was  less  avoidable.  The  wretched 
savages  of  Australia  and  Tasmania,  for  instance,  were  of  a  far 
lower  type  than  the  American  Indians;  and  the  New  Zealanders 
were  a  race  so  ferocious  that  for  a  long  time  no  one  thought  of 
anything  but  exterminating  them.  Even  since  they  have  been 
protected  by  the  government,  they  have  been  diminishing  in  num- 
bers; and  they  form  no  exception  to  the  rule  that  wherever  the 
English  have  gone,  the  natives  have  disappeared.  But  in  South 
Africa,  with  the  immense  population  of  the  central  continent  at 
their  back,  the  natives  have  occupied  a  different  position.  The 
European  settlements  have  pushed  on  fast  and  occupied  in  a  scat- 
tered way  a  vast  extent  of  country,  so  that  a  large  native  popu- 
lation remains  mixed  up  with  tlie  immigrants.  Of  all  the  non- 
European  races,  those  of  Africa  have  best  withstood  the  advance 
of  the  European  element.  The  Africans  in  America,  as  we  shall 
see,  do  not  perish  out  of  the  land  like  the  natives.  On  the  contrary, 
they  increase  and  multiply  ;  in  the  Southern  States  of  North  America 
alone  there  are  eight  millions  of  negroes  and  persons  of  negro 
descent,  and  their  number  is  still  increasing.  In  their  dealings 
with  the  native  races,  the  French  have  been  more  just  and  hu- 
mane than  other  Eurt>pcan  nations;  a  long  way  behind  tliem 
come   the   oihcr   Latin    nations,    and   last   of  all   the   English    and 


OLD     EUROPE     x\ND     NEW     EUROPE       19 

Dutch.  But  in  both  of  these  nations  people  have  risen  up  to 
point  out  the  wrongs  of  the  poor  natives;  and  the  name  of  an 
Englishman,  the  famous  William  Penn,  will  always  be  remem- 
bered as  the  only  one  of  his  nation  who  took  effectual  measures  to 
protect  the  Indians  in  his  colony.  Pennsylvania  was  in  some  other 
respects  the  most  enlightened  colonial  community  that  had  yet  been 
founded.  Here  alone  in  America  religious  liberty  was  established; 
here  also  the  first  anti-slavery  society  was  established,  nearly  two 
hundred  years  ago.  As  we  shall  presently  see.  Penn's  system  had 
the  happiest  results.  Pennsylvania  became  the  most  flourishing 
of  the  European  colonies ;  none  grew  so  fast,  or  became  so  famous, 
and  its  rise  was  due  among  other  things  to  the  lasting  peace  which 
was  maintained  between  the  colonists  and  the  natives.  But  when 
the  government  of  the  state  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
colonists,  and  martial  law  introduced,  this  happy  condition  of 
things  ceased.  The  people  of  the  United  States  have  been  as  bad 
as  any  European  race :  their  dealings  with  the  Cherokees  have 
proved  them  to  be  just  as  selfish  and  cruel  as  the  English  and  Dutch. 
When  we  come  to  trace  the  history  of  negro-slavery,  we  shall 
see  that  there  has  been  just  as  much  difference  between  the  Teu- 
tonic and  the  Latin  nations  in  the  treatment  of  the  Africans,  and 
in  taking  measures  for  abolisliing  slavery  and  the  slave  trade. 

The  new  Europe,  as  we  shall  see,  has  not  been  entirely  founded 
out  of  European  resources.  .\  great  amount  of  hard  manual  labor 
is  necessary  in  carrying  on  colonial  business,  and  as  much  of  the 
new  Europe  lies  within  or  near  the  tropics,  the  colonists  have  been 
obliged  to  look  about  them,  and  get  hold  of  people  accustomed 
to  labor  in  those  climes.  Within  the  temperate  zones  Europeans 
have  been  able  to  work  hard  themselves.  They  have,  therefore, 
been  able  to  dispense  with  the  system  of  forced  labor  which  has 
been  practiced  throughout  tlie  torrid  zones,  where  they  have  fixed 
tliemselves  for  tlie  purpose  of  raising  tropical  produce.  At  first 
they  employed  the  natives,  but  they  soon  learned  from  the  Por- 
tuguese the  advantage  of  importing  the  vigorous  negroes  of  Africa. 
The  African  negro  is  made  for  hard  labor  in  a  tropical  climate,  and 
for  two  centuries  the  European  colonists  stocked  their  colonies  with 
African  laborers.  At  length  they  became  so  numerous  as  to  be 
dangerous.  They  often  revolted  in  great  numbers,  killed  their 
masters,  burned  tlie  plantations,  and  formed  themselves  into  rude 
indejiendent  CMninuinitios.   whicli    it    t(U)k  }'ears  tti   reduce  to   sub- 


20  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

jection.  The  fear  of  this  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  a 
gradual  sense  of  the  cruehy  and  injustice  of  the  bond  in  which  they 
were  held,  led  gradually  to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and 
ultimately  of  slavery.  In  this  humane  change  England  in  the 
colonies  and  at  home  led  the  way.  Tropical  labor  has  now  passed 
into  a  second  phase.  Different  classes  of  hardy  natives  of  the 
tropics  have  been  invited  to  engage  themselves  to  the  planters  for 
a  fixed  period,  on  a  system  which  offers  mutual  advantages,  and 
under  this  system,  which  has  now  been  at  work  in  some  places 
for  forty  years,  Canary  Islanders,  Coolies  from  the  hills  of  India, 
Chinese,  South  Sea  Islanders,  and  other  natives  of  the  tropics  have 
flocked  to  the  plantations.  Even  African  negroes  have  done  the 
same  thing.  China  is  the  great  reservoir  of  human  labor;  what 
the  negro  has  been  to  the  colonial  world  the  Chinese  will  be  in 
future.  The  Chinese  are  a  hardy,  industrious,  and  thrifty  people; 
wherever  they  compete  with  European  labor  in  its  lower  forms, 
they  seem  to  be  able  to  drive  it  out  of  the  market,  so  that  when 
they  find  their  way  into  temperate  climes  a  bitter  animosity  is  al- 
ways produced  between  them  and  the  European  laboring  people, 
and  attempts  have  been  made  to  keep  them  out  by  law,  notably  in 
the  United  States.  Many  of  the  humbler  occupations  of  life  are 
far  better  filled  by  the  Chinese  than  by  Europeans ;  and  whenever 
they  are  well  treated  they  are  a  docile  and  law-abiding  race.  We 
thus  see  that  the  old  Europe  has  exclusively  contributed  nothing 
to  the  new  but  its  enterprise,  prudence,  and  capital ;  these  could 
not  produce  their  due  effect  without  the  aid  of  the  motive  power 
of  labor,  which  Europe  cannot  furnish  in  sufficient  quantity,  and 
for  some  very  important  branches  of  colonial  enterprise,  those 
pursued  under  the  tropics,  cannot  furnish  at  all.  Africa  and  Asia 
thus  play  a  considerable  though  subordinate  part  in  colonial  liistory, 
the  share  of  Asia  in  this  part  having  mainly  been  taken  since  the 
abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade. 

Before  men  understood  the  art  of  navigation,  changes  in  the 
settlement  of  the  globe's  surface  were  exclusively  made  by  means 
of  migrations.  When  people  migrate  they  generally  do  so  in  a 
very  large  body ;  often  a  whole  race  has  in  this  way  changed  its 
dwelling  place.  The  exodus  of  the  western  Aryans,  of  which 
we  have  spoken,  must  have  taken  place  by  migration.  A  migrat- 
ing people  generally  wanders  on  and  on  wherever  the  road  is 
easiest,  along  the  courses  of  great  rivers  or  the  shores  of  inland 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   21 

seas.  We  have  in  the  Bible  an  account  of  the  famous  migration 
of  the  Israeh'tes.  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  account  of  a 
migration  that  has  been  preserved.  It  is  true  that  it  is  not  a  mi- 
gration of  the  most  primitive  type,  but  it  illustrates  perfectly  the 
difference  between  migrating  and  colonizing.  A  colony  is  always 
a  settlement  made  be}ond  sea,  by  a  few  adventurous  people,  who 
leave  the  bulk  of  their  nation  behind  them.  The  earliest  and 
simplest  kind  of  colony  is  a  settlement  called  a  factory  or  comp- 
toir,  which  arises  whenever  a  certain  number  of  people  of  one 
nation  settle  in  some  distant  place  for  purposes  of  trade.  Such 
were  most  of  the  settlements  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  early  settle- 
ments of  the  European  nations  in  Africa  and  the  thickly-peopled 
East,  and  the  forts  of  the  forest  traders  of  New  France.  Such 
settlements,  however,  are  not  colonies  in  the  true  sense.  A  true 
colony  is  formed  when  a  number  of  people,  of  some  more  or  less 
civilized  race,  sail  away  and  make  a  permanent  and  independent 
settlement  on  some  coast  which  is  either  uninhabited,  or  possessed 
by  a  rude  and  backward  people,  build  habitations,  cultivate  the 
soil,  and  make  for  themselves  a  social  and  civil  life.  Virgil  gives 
a  famous  description  of  the  building  of  an  ancient  colonial  city. 
Like  most  of  the  old  Mediterranean  colonies,  Carthage  at  first 
consisted  of  only  the  site  of  a  town,  and  he  tells  us  how  the  colonists, 
who  had  sailed  over  the  sea  in  a  large  body,  bringing  \vith  them 
money  and  stores,  were  busy  in  building  their  town  in  imitation 
of  tliose  they  had  left  behind  in  Phccnicia.  Instead  of  the  rude 
huts  of  the  natives,  they  built  great  houses,  gates,  streets,  and  for- 
tifications, all  of  large  stones ;  each  man  divided  his  lot  from  the 
others  by  trenches ;  they  dug  out  a  harbor  for  large  ships,  and 
even  built  a  theater  and  a  temple.  This  description  very  much  re- 
sembles modern  colonization.  ]\Iost  of  the  colonies  have  kept  ac- 
curate accounts  of  tlieir  early  years,  which  were  in  almost  every 
case  years  of  hard  struggles.  A  colcniial  expedition  is,  of  course. 
a  matter  of  great  expense.  Xot  only  have  sailors  and  ships  to  be 
hired  and  stores  to  he  bouglu  for  ihe  voyage,  but  provision  has 
to  be  made  for  the  subsistence  of  the  emigrants  until  their  crops 
are  ripe.  Sometimes  these  expenses  liave  been  mainly  borne  by 
])rivate  individuals  or  ])y  companies  with  an  eye  to  profit  in  the 
end;  at  otliers  they  have  been  undertaken  by  the  governments 
who  claimed  the  colonial  soil.  \\"licn  a  beginning  has  been  once 
made,   it   is  easv  cnou2:li    for  an  agricultural  colonv  to  extend  its 


22  COLONIES     OF     THE     W  O  R  I- D 

limits,  and  it  often  takes  an  entirely  new  character.  The  most  ex- 
traordinary changes  in  colonial  history  belong  to  the  history  of 
the  United  States,  which  is  out  of  the  scope  of  this  book;  but  we 
shall  see  how  the  flourishing  group  of  the  Australias  has  within 
the  present  centuiy  grown  up  out  of  a  few  settlements  made  for  the 
reception  of  English  transported  convicts,  how  South  Africa  has 
grown  out  of  a  mere  victualing-place  made  for  the  ships  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  how  the  foundation  of  the  great 
Catholic  state  of  Brazil  was  made  by  Jews  exiled  from  Portugal 
for  their  religion,  while  that  of  the  vast  English  Dominion  of 
Canada  was  laid  by  a  few  French  gentlemen  and  their  peasant 
followers.  Many  of  the  most  famous  colonial  expeditions,  both 
in  early  colonial  times  and  in  our  own  generation,  on  record,  have 
been  complete  failures,  because  plans  for  colonies  have  often  been 
made  without  sufficient  knowledge  or  prudence. 

The  same  greed  of  gain  and  dominion  which  drove  the  west- 
ern nations  of  Europe  westward  made  them  adopt  every  way  of 
securing  for  themselves  the  whole  benefit  of  their  conquests.  The 
Spanish  monarchy  was  the  first  to  exclude  all  other  nations  from 
the  trade  of  its  American  possessions,  and  in  other  countries  the 
system  was  adopted  partly  because  it  was  necessary  for  the  profit 
of  the  commercial  companies  to  which  the  trade  of  the  new  settle- 
ments was  at  first  committed,  and  partly  from  a  belief  that  in  this 
way  the  nation  would  make  the  most  of  what  it  had  acquired. 
England  was  the  last  to  adopt  the  system.  Until  the  time  of  Crom- 
well the  trade  of  English  America  had  been  quite  free.  The  char- 
ters of  the  early  English  settlements  permitted  them  to  trade  with 
foreign  countries,  and  as  early  as  1620  the  Virginian  tobacco- 
farmers  had  warehouses  in  IMiddleburg  and  Flushing.  But  the 
Act  of  Navigation  (1651)  confined  the  trade  of  English  America, 
like  that  of  tlie  colonies  of  other  nations,  to  the  mother  country, 
and  for  more  than  a  century  the  exclusive  colony  system  prevailed 
everywhere.  It  was  supposed  that  this  greatly  stimulated  the  pros- 
perity of  both  the  colonies  and  the  home  countries,  but  we  now 
know  this  notion  to  have  been  quite  false.  Though  the  exclusive 
system  was  thus  common  to  both  families  of  settlements,  there  still 
continued  to  exist  one  great  difference  between  the  English  and 
all  other  colonies.  The  English  colonies  always  had,  in  other  re- 
spects, freedom  of  government.  They  made  their  own  laws  and 
raised  their  own  taxes,  whereas  the  colonies  of  the  Latin  nations 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   23 

were  always  taxed  and  governed  from  home.  This  difference  had 
been  silently  working  for  two  hundred  years  and  more  before  the 
independence  of  all  the  colonies  brought  out  its  consequences  in  all 
their  fullness.  One  effect  of  the  exclusive  system  is  very  notice- 
able at  the  present  time:  it  kept  back  the  mixture  of  peoples,  and 
prevented  the  formation  of  a  general  colonial  type  until  the  Eng- 
lish nation  had  completely  got  the  upper  hand  in  the  colonial 
world.  If  it  had  been  abolished  two  hundred  years  ago,  the  colo- 
nial world  would  have  fallen  at  once  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch; 
fifty  years  later  than  that,  it  might  perhaps  have  fallen  into  those 
of  the  French.  The  decline  and  fall  of  tlie  exclusive  system  is 
the  main  event  in  colonial  history  from  a  point  of  view  of  the 
economist,  just  as  the  independence  of  the  colonies  is  the  main  event 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  politician  and  historian. 

The  extraordinary  and  endless  variety  which  characterizes 
European  life  in  the  Old  World  has  been  faithfully  reflected  in 
the  New.  The  following  pages  will  be  mainly  filled  with  bare  de- 
tails which  will  lose  their  significance  unless  we  bear  in  mind 
as  much  as  possible  the  setting  in  which  the  events  which  make  up 
colonial  history  ha\'e  taken  place.  We  must  not  forget  how  dif- 
ferent is  the  aspect  of  nature  in  the  New  World.  The  physical 
aspect  of  almost  every  part  of  the  new  Europe  is  far  grander  and 
more  interesting  than  that  of  the  old.  The  mountains  are  loftier, 
the  rivers  longer  and  broader,  vegetation  richer,  colors  brighter, 
the  sun  hotter,  the  air  clearer.  Spaces  are  vaster  and  distances 
greater  than  in  the  Old  World,  and  a  great  disproportion  is  at 
once  felt  to  exist  between  the  forces  of  nature  and  those  of  man. 
The  New"  World  in  many  ways  leads  the  European  back  to  condi- 
tions more  natural  than  those  which  surround  him  in  the  Old. 
This  is  at  any  rate  the  case  with  the  Teutonic  races ;  Englishmen 
and  Germans  have  generally  found  in  colonial  existence  a  sense 
resembling  that  of  relief  from  a  lieavy  and  useless  burden.  In  the 
air  of  the  New  World  1\nitoiiic  life  seems  suddenly  to  purge  itself 
of  the  useless  accretions  (if  two  tliousand  years.  Activity  and  en- 
terprise increase  as  wealth  is  accumulated;  a  sense  of  worth  and  a 
pride  of  race  are  developed  which  contribute  greatly  to  social 
cohesion  and  political  independence.  We  shall  see  later  on  how 
the  English  colonial  type  has  distanced  all  the  others,  because  it 
is  the  only  case  in  which  the  atmosphere  of  the  New  World  wrought 
its  natural  results.     Jii  ihc  ca.-e  of  the  Latin  colonists  adverse  cir- 


24>  COLONIES     OF     THE    WORLD 

cumstances  for  the  most  part  prevented  the  growth  of  the  true 
colonial  character.  Wherever  the  Spaniards  went  they  found 
wealth  already  made  for  them:  they  had  only  to  put  out  their 
hands  and  take  it.  The  Spaniards  rarely  went  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  civilization  they  supplanted,  and  never  attempted,  like  the 
Teutonic  colonists,  to  penetrate  the  wilderness.  The  Creole 
hidalgo,  the  great  landowner  of  a  Mexican  or  Peruvian  town,  lived 
a  life  even  more  stupid  and  monotonous  than  his  countrymen  of  the 
same  rank  at  home.  He  had  no  connection  with  the  home  country, 
and  nothing  to  do  with  the  government  of  that  of  his  adoption; 
this  was  always  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  native  Spaniards,  who  came 
and  went  like  birds  of  passage,  as  the  English  and  Dutch  still  do 
in  India.  The  \\^est  Indian  planter  and  the  American  farmer  had 
a  constant  commercial  connection  with  England ;  in  Spanish  Amer- 
ica there  was  no  trade  except  what  was  carried  on  by  a  few 
Biscayan  peddlers,  who  rambled  up  and  down  the  country  buying 
up  what  they  could  for  the  half-yearly  fairs  that  were  held  at 
the  ports.  The  idle  hidalgo  lived  quite  self-contained  in  the  midst 
of  his  huge  estate,  his  house  surrounded  by  the  huts  of  his  Indian 
and  half-breed  serfs  or  peons.  Some  of  these  tended  his  great 
herds  of  wild  oxen  and  horses;  others  dug  in  the  hillsides  for 
silver,  or  sullenly  cultivated  patches  of  maize  or  potatoes,  while 
their  wives  spun  coarse  cotton  and  woolen  stuffs,  and  plaited  the 
prairie  grass  into  broad  hats  to  keep  off  the  burning  sun.  Some- 
times he  rode  in  the  cool  time  of  the  day,  and  even  indulged  in  the 
delights  of  the  chase;  more  often  he  was  borne  out  in  a  palanquin 
by  his  negroes,  Spanish  colonial  life  was  organized  idleness;  that 
of  the  English  and  Dutch  had  a  real  object.  Farther  east  from 
the  abode  of  the  IMexican  hidalgo,  in  the  English  colony  of  Vir- 
ginia, as  early  as  tlie  time  of  Charles  I.,  a  very  different  life  might 
have  been  seen.  Here  the  eye,  wandering  about  Jamestown  and  up 
and  down  tlie  valley  of  the  James  Ri\'er,  would  have  rested  every- 
where upon  large  or  small  plantations,  dotting  the  wilderness  on 
e\-ery  side.  Traders'  stores  and  warehouses  lined  the  quay,  to 
receive  the  tobacco  and  corn  which  poured  into  the  capital ;  tb.e 
port  was  crowded  with  ships  from  New  England,  from  London, 
and  Amsterdam.  All  was  organized  activity ;  the  very  Indians 
and  negroes  had  caught  tlic  spirit.  There  wf)uld  have  been  signs 
of  a  strong  political  life,  ib.ougli  at  this  time  most  of  the  people 
would  have  been  Royalists.     Jamestown  would  have  been  a  copy 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   25 

of  Bristol  or  Southampton,  just  as  the  ^Mexican  estancia  was  a 
copy  of  a  CastiHan  country  seat.  If  we  bear  in  mind  all  through 
this  history  these  two  types  of  the  Mexican  hidalgo  and  the  Vir- 
ginian tobacco-planter  we  shall  find  it  very  much  easier  to  under- 
stand. These  are  the  leading  types  in  colonial  history,  and  the 
others  group  themselves  naturally  around  and  between  them.  The 
Canadian  seigneur,  with  his  faithful  peasantry,  settling  down  in 
the  pine  woods  of  Quebec,  comes  nearer  the  former  type;  so  does 
the  Portuguese  nobleman,  selling  his  paternal  estate  to  some  ad- 
venturer from  the  East,  and  buying  of  his  sovereign  a  vast  fief 
on  the  Brazilian  coast,  chiefly  tropical  forest,  with  perhaps  a  few 
sugar  patches  dotting  the  swamps  below.  The  Teutonic  colonial 
type  is  more  varied.  There  may  seem  to  be  little  in  common  be- 
tween the  sugar-maker  of  Barbados,  the  indigo-planter  of  Ja- 
maica, the  mahogany-lumberer  of  Honduras,  the  smuggler  of 
Curasao,  the  Boer  of  the  Cape,  the  sheep-farming  squatter  of 
AustraHa,  and  the  gold-seeker  of  Britisli  Columbia ;  but  in  all  of 
these  we  shall  find  the  same  determined  activity  and  independence, 
the  same  rough  but  effectual  power  of  combination,  and  the  same 
instinctive  repulsion  from  the  lower  human  types  which  surround 
them.  The  native  weakness  of  the  Latin  type  and  the  native 
strength  of  the  Teutonic  have  had  another  remarkable  result  which 
became  of  great  importance  as  soon  as  the  epoch  of  political  inde- 
pendence was  reached.  Priests  and  soldiers  play  a  considerable 
part  in  European  medinsval  histor}'.  Now  we  shall  find  as  we  go 
on  that  the  clerical  and  military  elements  have  been  transplanted 
to  nearly  all  the  Latin  communities  in  the  New  World,  where  they 
have  grown  and  flourished  like  baneful  parasites,  while  in  the 
Teutonic  communities  they  were  at  first  entirely  wanting,  and  could 
only  be  created  with  difficulty  when  the  need  came.  In  Mexico,  to 
add  another  touch  to  our  contrast  of  types,  there  were  bishops, 
priests,  and  monks  all  over  the  country,  endowed  not  only  with 
tithes,  but  with  vast  landed  properties,  and  by  far  the  most  power- 
ful people  in  the  community.  In  Virginia  clergymen  were  so  scarce 
that  a  bounty  was  offcrctl  for  their  importation.  Yet  there  is  no 
reason  to  think  that  Teutonic  colonists  have,  as  a  body,  been  less 
Christian-like  and  God-fearing  than  the  Latin.  On  the  contrary, 
wherever  they  go  they  have  striven  to  carry  their  church  with 
them,  whereas  the  Latin  colonists  have  of  late  years  been  in  many 
places  shaking  otf  their  church  as  an  oppressive  and  intolerable 


S6  COLONIES     OF    THE    WORLD 

burden.  Few  things  in  modern  history  are  more  remarkable  than 
the  way  in  which  the  Protestant  Church  of  England  has  spread 
all  over  the  English  colonial  world.  It  has  not  indeed  done  such 
great  things  in  civilizing  the  native  races  as  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  done  through  its  devoted  religious  orders;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  not  furnished  an  element  of  disturbance  and 
reaction,  like  the  selfish  secular  clergy  of  Spanish  America.  The 
history  of  the  church  in  North  America,  and  in  all  the  British 
colonies  and  possessions,  is  one  of  great  interest  and  importance, 
though  we  shall  be  able  to  say  but  little  about  it.  It  must  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Church  of  England  has  done  much  to 
raise  the  character  of  new  colonial  communities,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  Australian  convict  settlements. 

In  one  respect  the  nations  of  the  new  Europe  beyond  seas 
differed  very  greatly  from  those  of  the  old.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  nearly  all  the  European  nations  freely  communicated  and 
interchanged  ideas  with  each  other;  and  five  hundred  years  ago 
no  European  would  have  found  himself  altogether  a  stranger  in 
neighboring  lands,  wherever  he  might  go.  But  about  the  time 
of  the  first  growth  of  new  Europe,  this  condition  of  things  was 
passing  away,  and,  except  in  the  case  of  one  or  two  commercial 
nations,  the  bonds  of  the  old  European  life  were  becoming  relaxed. 
This  isolation  was  transferred  by  commercial  policy  to  the  new 
Europe;  all  the  colonial  nations  of  the  Old  World  sought,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  keep  their  colonies  to  themselves.  The  effect  of  this 
was  to  check  even  the  communication  between  each  mother  country 
and  its  own  colonies,  and  nothing  is  more  surprising  to  a  reader 
of  the  present  day  when  he  comes  to  the  epoch  of  independence, 
a  hundred  years  ago,  than  to  see  how  utterly  ignorant  the  people 
of  the  old  Europe  in  general  were  of  the  social  conditions  and 
forces  which  prevailed  in  the  new.  It  is  impossible  to  suppose 
that  either  English  statesmen  or  the  Spanish  would  have  adopted 
the  policy  which  they  did  adopt  toward  America,  if  they  had 
possessed  any  real  knowledge  of  the  subject.  As  much  can  be  said 
for  the  French  intervention  in  Mexico  under  Napoleon  III,  Of 
late  years  there  has  been  a  great  change.  Communication  be- 
tween the  chief  parts  of  the  old  and  the  new  Europe  is  now  rapid 
and  frequent;  the  people  of  both  are  always  going  to  and  fro 
among  each  other,  and  their  knowledge  of  each  other  is  greatly 
increased.     It  is  easier  for  an  luiglishman  of  the  present  day  to 


OLD  EUROTE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   27 

g-o  all  round  the  world  than  a  hundred  years  ago  it  was  for 
him  to  go  to  Italy;  and  a  journey  from  America  to  London  is 
now  a  less  formidable  undertaking  than  one  from  Scotland  to  Lon- 
don was  a  hundred  years  ago.  Nowadays  travelers  may  go 
wherever  they  please;  but  it  is  not  long  since  the  famous  man  of 
science,  Humboldt,  was  forbidden  to  enter  Brazil  upon  pain  of 
death,  and  less  than  forty  years  ago  tilings  were  almost  as  bad 
in  Paraguay.  In  the  present  state  of  constant  communication  be- 
tween the  new  Europe  and  the  old,  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  the 
great  isolation  of  the  old  colonies  from  each  other  and  from  the 
mother  countries.  This  isolation  wrought  different  effects  in  the 
two  great  colonial  families.  In  the  Latin  colonies,  it  contributed  to 
their  degradation ;  for  it  left  them  more  and  more  at  the  mercy 
of  officials  and  ecclesiastics,  and  thus  enhanced  the  effect  of  that 
combination  of  tyranny,  bigotry,  and  monopoh',  by  which  they  were 
governed.  In  the  English  colonies  this  isolation  was  less  complete; 
the  colonies  were  already  possessed  of  a  stock  of  ideas  which  they 
never  quitted,  and  these  ideas  flourished  and  spread,  tending  to 
keep  alive  the  same  ideas  in  the  Old  W^orld ;  and  in  the  case  of 
Pennsylvania  the  most  liberal  principles  of  which  the  Old  World 
was  then  capable  were  at  once  transferred  to  and  put  in  force  in 
the  New. 

The  difference  wdiich  we  have  just  noticed  has  completely 
disappeared  with  the  establishment  of  free  communication  be- 
tween the  new  and  the  old  Europe  since  the  epoch  of  independence. 
The  old  barriers  have  been  all  broken  down,  and  all  over  the  New 
A\^orld  European  ideas  grow  faster,  if  they  do  not  flourish  better, 
than  they  have  done  in  the  old  soil.  In  this  the  English  Ameri- 
can colonies  led  the  way.  In  the  New  World  it  takes  much 
less  time  to  mature  an  idea  and  put  it  into  execution  than  in 
the  Old,  and  consequently  America  has  grown  more  in  a  hun- 
dred years  than  l{!urope  in  a  thousand.  P)()th  in  the  Latin  and  the 
Teutonic  colonies  there  are  of  course  facilities  for  carrying  out 
refonns  which  do  not  exist  in  the  old  Europe.  Habits  of  life  are 
not  so  stereotyped ;  the  scene  is  not  overshadowed  by  a  gigantic 
past  which  it  is  impossible  to  get  rid  of;  there  is  everywhere  a 
youthfulness,  a  singleness,  and  a  force  which  is  missed  in  the 
old  Europe.  The  Old  World  is  ever  being  repaired  out  of  the 
forces  of  the  New.  Kxen  in  h^ngland  some  famous  legal  and  po- 
litical reforms  have  only  been  adopted  since  they  have  been  tried 


28  COLONIES     OF     THE    WORLD 

in  Australia:  two  famous  laws  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
poor  man,  that  which  gives  him  a  vote,  and  tliat  which  enables  him 
to  buy  a  piece  of  land  without  expense  or  formahty,  have  come  to 
England  from  the  New  World.  In  Australia  public  executions, 
which  had  so  long  been  a  scandal  at  home,  were  first  abolished,  and 
the  example  was  at  once  followed  in  England ;  and  there  are  very 
many  other  matters  which  prove  how  much  quicker  of  growth  all 
ideas  of  improvement,  whether  on  a  great  or  a  small  scale,  are  in 
the  new  Europe  than  in  the  old. 

In  the  chapters  which  follow  we  shall  mainly  trace  the  fall 
of  one  form  of  colonization  and  the  rise  of  another.  This  change, 
as  we  shall  see,  has  several  phases.  We  shall  see  that  the  chief 
Latin  type,  that  of  an  idle  landowning  settler,  emigrating  only  for 
the  purpose  of  subsisting  uselessly  on  the  produce  of  the  New 
World,  fails  altogether.  The  wisest  policy  in  the  world  could  not 
have  made  a  colonial  empire  flourish  wherever  this  type  abounded. 
A  community  made  up  of  people  of  this  kind  without  energy  and 
enterprise  cannot  but  fall  out  of  the  race.  The  successful  colonist 
must  in  some  way  or  other  contribute  to  the  general  stock  of  the 
world's  riches ;  he  must  send  home  sugar,  cotton,  wool,  hides, 
timber,  or  some  other  product  of  labor,  making  himself  and  the 
community  to  which  he  belongs  to  flourish  by  the  return  of  some- 
thing in  exchange.  We  shall  see  that  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
in  the  New  World  are  beginning  to  shake  off  their  old  character. 
Again,  we  shr.ll  trace  the  failure  of  schemes  for  putting  the  profits 
of  the  New  World  on  a  large  scale  into  the  hands  of  a  few  people 
sitting  quietly  at  home  in  the  Old.  We  shall  see  that  shortly  after 
the  settlement  of  the  New  World  many  joint-stock  companies  be- 
gan to  be  formed,  by  which  it  was  expected  that  the  capitalists 
of  old  Europe  would  engross  the  profits  made  in  the  new.  This 
did  very  well,  at  least  for  a  time,  in  the  East;  but  it  would 
not  do  where  nearly  evervthing  depended  on  the  laborer,  and  very 
little  indeed  on  the  capitalist.  The  filiation  of  clever  ideas  of  this 
kind  may  be  traced  from  the  subtle  merchants  of  Holland,  through 
Law,  the  I^^ranco-.Scotchman,  down  to  AA^akefield  and  others  in  our 
own  time.  In  enterprise,  then,  we  shall  see  that  the  laborer  in 
the  colonies  has,  on  the  whole,  prevailed  over  the  capitalist  at 
home.  The  great  bulk  of  the  riches  gained  llirough  the  Nev/ 
World  has  been  gained  by  honest  individual  enterprise ;  and  the 
failure  of  the  system  of  commercial  colony  companies  has  been  as 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   29 

complete  as  that  of  Latin  colonization  in  its  old  mediasval  form. 
Lastly,  we  shall  see  that  all  the  colonies  in  the  end  adapt  themselves 
to  the  model  of  those  whicli  are  most  a  copy  of  the  old  country, 
and  are  least  interfered  with  by  the  old  countiy,  namely  the  Eng- 
lish, The  rapid  growth  of  the  English  colonial  communities,  while 
nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  world  were  standing  still,  proved  that  the 
English  had  hit  upon  the  true  form  of  colonization.  Thus  for 
three  centuries  the  new  Europe  had  been  finding  out :  ( i )  that  a 
colony  was  essentially  a  working  place,  not  an  idling  place;  (2) 
that  its  prosperity  was  an  affair  of  busy  individual  thought  and 
labor,  not  capable  of  being  worked  out  like  a  machine  by  some 
distant  force;  (3)  that  it  could  not  go  on  without  having  a  cer- 
tain liberty  of  action  and  freedom  from  meddling  interference. 
The  pursuit  of  these  principles  in  tiie  English  colonies  had  greatly 
helped  to  raise  England  above  all  her  continental  rivals ;  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  eighteentii  century,  just  as  the  whole  world  was 
beginning  to  see  how  great  her  colonial  empire  was,  and  wliat 
unbounded  prospects  lay  open  to  her  through  it,  a  great  war-min- 
ister wielded  her  powers  of  offense  so  dexterously  that  slie  ruined 
France,  her  chief  rival,  both  in  the  East  and  West,  anrl  tiius  won 
a  fresli  vantage-ground  for  the  colonial  type  she  had  produced. 
We  shall  see  how  for  a  short  time  (i7^>3-i775)  it  seemed  as  if 
the  destinies  of  tlie  whole  nevv*  Europe  (for  Spain  and  Portugal 
could  not  long  have  resisted  the  united  force  of  England  and  her 
colonics)  would  be  linked  forever  with  England  alone.  But  this 
prospect,  the  most  brilliant  perhaps  that  e\'cr  dazzled  any  nation 
of  the  earth,  was  blasted  by  the  folly  of  her  statesmen,  and  ihe  great 
colonial  power  fell  asunder  into  two  parts,  one  having  its  seat 
in  the  Old  \\'orld,  and  the  otlier  in  tlic  Xev/.  Notwithstanding 
tliis,  the  work  v/as  done.  The  jviiglish  tvjje.  thongli  its  effective 
power  was  im[)airecl  by  division.  ecli])scd  all  othicrs;  cUid  perh.aps 
it  will  be  found  in  tl:e  end  to  ha\'e  (b^ne  its  work  quite  as  crtica- 
ciously,  though  not  so  r;i])i(lly,  as  if  its  forces  had  continued  united. 
A  great  blow  in  luu'oj)c  next  ex])(ised  the  wlu)1e  cokMiial  v^'orld  to 
the  inlluence  of  this  victorious  I-Jiglish  l}'pe.  The  power  oi  the 
chief  Latin  natii)ns  in  iuu'ope  \\;is  st/uck  io  the  ground  by  one 
of  themselves,  and  tlicir  colonics  rose  and  ihi'ew  off  th.c  3'oke,  which 
could  never  be  rcinipnscd. 

The  new  luu'opc-  was  at  iM">t  <>rgi;nizc(l  on  tlic  Sj)anish  model; 
in  about  three  centuries  this  had  'vcn  c\erv\\here  exchani'ed   for 


30  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

the  English.  The  final  blow  was  dealt  to  the  old  system  by  the 
French  Revolution,  and  the  effect  this  shock  produced  in  the  New 
World  was  speedy  and  complete.  We  shall  see  toward  the  middle 
of  this  history  how  the  French  Revolution  came  to  complete  the 
work  which  had  already  been  begun  by  American  Independence; 
the  chief  thing  to  be  noticed  at  present  is  how  completely  the  ruin 
of  the  power  of  Spain  and  Portugal  in  America  left  the  field  open 
to  English  influence.  In  the  previous  century,  the  work  that  was 
done  would  have  been  done  by  the  English  arms ;  indeed,  Pitt's 
invasion  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1806  was  a  survival  of  a  very  old 
idea  according  to  which  English  ships  of  war  were  to  take  all  the 
Spanish  naval  positions,  and  make  of  Spanish  America  one  vast 
English  colony.  But  the  work  was  done  in  another  way.  It 
was  done  more  peacefully,  more  easily,  and  far  more  completely, 
by  the  spread  of  English  ideas,  through  the  medium,  not  of  Eng- 
land herself,  but  of  her  sister  power  in  the  United  States.  During 
a  hundred  years,  that  vast  power  had  been  growing,  both  socially 
and  politically,  with  astonishing  steadiness  and  rapidity;  and  in 
different  degrees  it  now  began  to  drag  with  it  all  the  rest  of  the 
colonial  world.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America.  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, and  even  old  Europe  itself,  have  since  been  following  in  its 
wake.  In  South  America  the  effect  of  the  example  of  the  United 
States  was  felt  more  immediately  and  profoundly  than  anywhere. 
There  was  no  old  antagonism  to  counteract  it,  as  in  Canada ;  no 
vast  ocean  standing  as  a  barrier  between,  as  in  Europe.  Released 
from  European  bondage,  the  South  American  nations  one  after 
another  began  to  adopt  the  social  and  political  model  of  the  United 
States,  not  without  many  errors  and  failures.  In  the  meantime 
English  ideas  had  wrought  an  important  change  in  the  plantation 
colonies.  The  English  in  America  had  begun  the  agitation  against 
the  slave  trade,  and  soon  after  the  French  Revolution  strenuous 
efforts  were  made  in  England  to  get  it  abolished ;  these  efforts  suc- 
ceeded, and  the  whole  world  in  time  followed  the  example.  Lastly, 
England,  de])rived  of  her  great  colonies  in  North  America,  began 
the  task  of  founding  new  ones.  Other  nations  have  tried  to  follow 
in  the  same  path,  with  less  success.  Besides  this,  England  began 
systematically  extending  and  improving  the  lesser  colonies  whicli 
were  left  to  her,  and  those  which  she  won  from  her  continental 
enemies  in  tlic  wars  of  tlic  i^'rench  Revolution  and  Empire.  Tlierc 
England  adopted  a  fresh  pulicy,  abandoning  the  system  of  protect- 


OLD  EUROPE  AND  NEW  EUROPE   31 

ing  certain  trades,  such  as  that  in  sugar,  for  the  benefit  of  par- 
ticular classes  in  the  colonies,  and  gradually  adopting  a  system  of 
free  commerce.  In  every  respect  we  may  say  that  the  colonial 
world  has  been  transformed  by  English  influence,  policy,  or  ideas. 
This  transformation  has  gone  far  to  destroy  the  isolation  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  New  World  from  each  other. 

This  history  is  divided  into  two  eras,  the  first  being  the  era 
of  the  creation  and  development  of  the  old  colonial  system,  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  of  transition,  in  which  that  system  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  revolt  of  the  English,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese 
colonies  in  America.  The  change  from  dependence  to  indepen- 
dence, as  we  might  expect,  did  not  take  place  suddenly.  It  took, 
in  fact,  about  half  a  century  to  accomplish  (1775-1825).  The 
third  era  is  one  of  new  colonial  expansion  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Since  the  epoch  of  independence,  the  history  of  America, 
which  includes  the  great  bulk  of  the  new  Europe,  has  been  the  his- 
tory of  separate  nations  of  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  English  de- 
scent. The  great  colonial  nation  of  all,  the  United  States,  has  a 
history  so  important  and  complicated  tliat  it  demands  a  separate 
volume.  One  of  its  greatest  achievements  has  been  the  rapid  ex- 
pansion of  its  population  and  institutions  over  the  entire  breadth  of 
the  continent  of  North  America,  a  colonizing  movement  the  greatest 
and  most  successful  in  all  history.  Here  we  are  concerned  with 
the  United  States  since  1776  only  as  a  colonizer  overseas,  and 
with  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  nations  of  continental  America 
only  in  the  period  of  their  colonial  dependence  and  final  revolt 
therefrom,  for  as  we  might  expect,  the  history  of  these  nations 
since  the  epoch  of  independence  greatly  exceeds  their  history  before 
that  epoch,  both  in  interest  and  importance.  After  tracing  the  rise, 
growth,  and  fall  of  the  old  colonial  system,  we  shall  see  how  a 
great  English  community  enveloped  tlie  French  colony  of  Canada, 
how  the  Canadas  became  an  independent  nation  in  1841,  and  have 
since  been  placed  at  the  head  of  a  confederation  including  all 
the  older  English  possessions  on  the  North  American  continent; 
how  the  loss  of  the  United  States  led  to  the  colonization  of  Aus- 
tralia, how  several  separate  colonial  communities  have  grown  up 
there  and  are  still  grcnving.  and  how  they  were  endowed  with 
the  privileges  of  independence  as  soon  as  it  was  possible  to  do 
so;  how  the  movement  spread  to  the  neighboring  islands  of  New 
Zealand;  how  the  .Australian  colc'inies  have  united  in  a  confedera- 


32  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

tion,  following  the  example  of  the  United  States  and  of  Canada; 
how  an  English  element  enveloped  the  conquered  Dutch  colony 
of  the  Cape,  and  how  the  West  Indies,  ruined  by  Slavery  Abolition 
and  Free  Trade,  have  quite  lost  their  position  in  the  colonial  world 
of  a  century  ago.  We  shall  note  the  expansion  of  English 
dominion  in  Asia,  in  Africa,  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and 
the  colonial  enterprises  of  the  other  nations  of  Europe  in  these 
regions,  although  the  full  account  of  this  development  in  India 
and  Africa  demands  for  each  a  separate  treatment.  We  shall  trace 
the  career  of  the  United  States  as  a  founder  and  ruler  of  colonies 
oversea.  The  first  episode  in  this  history  is  that  of  the  enterprise 
of  the  Portuguese  early  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Portuguese 
were  the  first  to  begin  the  work  of  colonization;  we  shall  see  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  book  that  their  colonists  have  been  the  last  on 
the  American  continent  in  completing  the  work  of  independence. 


Chapter    II 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISPI  COLONIES 

1 450- 1 5  80 

LESS  than  five  hundred  years  ag"o  few  European  vessels 
ventured  westward  beyond  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
-^  existence  of  America  was  unsuspected,  and  nothing  certain 
was  known  of  the  remoter  coast  of  the  Old  World.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  the  Atlantic  Ocean  was  not  navigable,  and  that  the 
western  coast  of  Africa  was  uninhabitable  on  account  of  the  heat. 
The  credit  of  destroying  this  idle  belief  is  due  to  the  smallest  nation 
of  Europe.  Mohammedans  of  mixed  race,  known  to  the  Chris- 
tians of  Europe  by  the  general  name  of  Moors,  were  at  this  time 
the  leading  people  about  the  shores  of  the  iMediterranean  Sea,  and 
others  called  by  the  same  name  engrossed  most  of  the  trade  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Morocco,  as  its  name  implies,  was  in  the  possession 
of  the  Moors,  and  they  had  conquered  and  settled  the  greater  part 
of  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  But  the  Christian  princes  of  the  north  of 
the  Peninsula  drove  them  by  slow  degrees  from  Europe,  and 
some  of  the  ocean  coast  of  Spain  thus  came  into  the  ])ossession 
of  a  petty  monarch,  who  took  his  name  from  Porto,  his  seat  on  the 
Douro.  The  King  of  Portugal  was  the  head  of  a  nation  which, 
though  small,  was  filled  with  the  love  of  liberty  and  of  enterprise. 
The  Portuguese,  elated  and  enriched  by  tlieir  conf|uests,  pursued^ 
the  ^kloors  to  their  own  shores.  Tiey  gradually  made  themselves 
masters  on  the  African  ci^ast.  as  lliey  did  afterward  on  a  great 
scale  in  the  East,  of  the  same  trade  which  had  enriched  the  3,Ioors, 
and  finding  themseh'es  at  home  on  the  ocean  they  carried  their 
ex])loration  of  the  Atlantic  coasts  i>\  Africa  eacli  year  further  and 
further.  The  old  idle  ])eliefs  were  (|uickly  dissipated.  Almost 
everywhere  the  c(\asts  were  found  inhabited,  and  the  climate  tol- 
erable. Islands  were  disc(>\"ered  ofY  th.e  African  coast;  its  stormy 
capes  were  (l<ui])k'd  one  after  another:  its  great  rixers  were  par- 
tially explored:  gold  and  sla\'es  were  brought  fronn  tlie  coast  of 
Guinea;  and  at  last  tlie  Cape  of  Coijd  liope  was  doubled,  and  a 

33 


34 


COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 


1450-1580 


way  discovered  by  which  the  riches  of  the  East  could  be  brought 
directly  to  the  western  shores  of  Europe. 

Prince  Henry,  Duke  of  Viseo,  and  son  of  John  L,  was  the 
chief  promoter  of  these  adventurous  voyages.     He  has  been  called 


AZ0H£i5  ° 

14-13 


dpe  V?rde  /s/fja. 


PROGRESS  OP 
PORTUGUESE  DISCOVERY 


Cape  of  Cood  Hopg^ 

J*-97 


the  Navigator,  tliough  he  took  no  part  in  them  himself;  but  he  liad 
deeply  studied  the  science  of  astronomv,  and  he  labored  hard  to 
extend  and  apply  it.     It  is  to  him,  in  fact,  that  the  world  owes  both 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  35 

1450-1580 

Vasco  and  Columbus,  Under  his  directions  larger  and  stouter 
ships  were  built  and  equipped ;  an  observatory  was  built  at  Sagres, 
on  the  coast,  the  astrolabe  was  perfected,  and  the  compass,  which 
had  been  discovered  many  years  before,  first  became  useful  in 
steering.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1460,  the  ships  of  the  King 
of  Portugal  had  doubled  Cape  Bojador  and  Cape  Verde ;  they  had 
explored  the  coast  as  far  as  Sierra  Leone ;  and  Madeira,  the 
Azores,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  had  been  discovered,  and 
partly  settled.  For  Prince  Pl-enry  was  not  a  mere  man  of  science. 
He  at  once  saw  in  these  newfound  lands  in  the  south  a  field  for 
European  enterprise.  Under  his  directions  the  great  forests  of 
Madeira  were  set  on  fire,  and  the  soil  was  made  ready  for  the  vines 
of  Burgundy  and  the  sugar-canes  of  Sicily.  The  island  was  di- 
vided, after  the  system  of  the  times,  into  two  great  fiefs.  A  tenth 
of  its  produce  was  set  apart  for  the  king,  another  tenth  for  the  clergy, 
and  the  rest,  according  to  a  primitive  contract  common  in  the  ]\Iid- 
dle  Ages,  was  divided  equally  between  the  landowner  and  the  culti- 
vator. Vv^e  see  that  the  ideas  which  the  Portuguese  carried  with 
them  were  strictly  those  of  medi?eval  Europe.  So  it  was  in  regard 
to  the  trade  for  gold  and  slaves  begun  under  this  prince's  auspices 
with  Guinea.  The  traffic  with  Africa,  like  that  of  the  ^Moors 
themselves,  and  like  the  traffic  subsequently  with  India,  was  half 
piracy,  half  commerce.  It  was  from  the  first  a  royal  monopoly, 
and  was  carried  on  exclusively  in  the  king's  ships.  But  both  ships 
and  commerce  were  often  farmed  out  to  adventurers;  and  the 
Portuguese  trade  was  thus  saved  from  the  officialism  which 
strangled  that  of  Spain,  It  was  not  until  twenty-six  years  after 
the  death  of  Prince  Henry  tliat  tlie  Portuguese  sailors  reached  the 
great  southern  cape,  wliich  they  called  at  first  the  Cape  of  Storms, 
but  which  was  afterward  known  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
progress  of  navigation  was  slow,  but  it  was  seconded  by  a  wise 
policy  at  h(inie.  I'he  kings  of  Portrigal  encouraged  science  and 
trade ;  Portugal  became  a  commercial  nation ;  Coimbra,  the  old 
capital  city,  was  soon  forsaken  for  the  rising  seaport  of  Lisbon; 
and  John  H.  allowed  all  nations  to  come  there  and  buy  the  prod- 
uce of  the  African  trade. 

Castile,  which  had  come  lately  into  possession  of  the  ports  of 
Seville  and  Cadiz,  was  nut  likely  to  remain  inactive  in  the  midst 
of  her  neiglibor's  succc--<c:^.  Tli(^ug1i  the  Castilians  \\erc  inferior 
navigators,  the  science  and  practical  skill  of  Italians  were  alwa}^ 


36 


COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 


1450-1580 


at  their  command,  and  their  vessels  closely  followed  those  of  Por- 
tugal, and  disputed  whenever  they  could  the  right  to  their  dis- 
coveries. Castilian  ships,  perhaps,  were  the  first  to  touch  at  the 
Canaries,  though  the  priority  was  questioned,  and,  in  1479,  the 
rival  claims  of  the  two  nations  were  settled  by  treaty:  Portugal 
kept  Guinea  and  most  of  the  islands,  and  the  Castilians  were  con- 
tent with  the  Canaries.  They  carried  thither  the  Rhenish  grape, 
which  had  been  already  tried  and  approved  at  Cadiz,  and  the 
Canary  wine  soon  became  famous.  When  the  crowns  of  Castile 
and  Aragon  were '  united  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  the 
conquest  of  the  ]\Ioors  had  been  completed  by  the  conquest  of 


rIAIMSNAPOFTi 

14-92 


Granada,  Spain  at  once  took  rank  as  a  formidable  European  power. 
Ferdinand  was  a  politic  prince,  and  his  jealousy  was  moved  by  the 
continual  advances  of  the  Portuguese.  These  latter  were  now  on 
the  point  of  reaching  the  Indian  Ocean.  Every  year  saw  their 
ships  better  built  and  equipped,  and  their  captains  more  adven- 
turous, and  the  counselors  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  resolved  to 
try  a  cliance  of  cutting  short  the  rivalrv.  Columbus,  a  clever  and 
learned  Genoese,  who  had  been  long  in  the  Portuguese  service,  had 
convinced  himself  that  this  long,  perilous,  and  as  yet  uncertain 
circumnavigation  of  Africa  might  be  avoided,  and  the  voyage  to 
India  quickly  accomplished,  by  sailing  due  west,  and  thus  com- 
ing upon  tlie  shores  of  the  East  from  the  other  side. 

If  we  look  at  a  map  of  the  world  of  his  times,  we  shall  see. 
indeed,  two  hemispheres,  but  only  one  continent,  divided  equally 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  37 

1450-1580 

between  the  two.  The  Indies  occupied  a  vast  space  in  the  eyes  of 
mankind;  and  the  g-reat  question  was,  how  to  get  at  tliem.  The 
recent  voyages  of  the  Portuguese  had  greatly  changed  the  map 
of  the  world.  It  had  been  always  supposed  that  Africa  ended 
at  the  equator;  but  these  voyages  had  shown  that  this  was  a  mis- 
take, and  that  the  way  to  India  was  much  longer  and  more  dan- 
gerous than  had  been  ex])ected.  Hence  the  bold  idea  of  Columbus. 
Common  sense,  we  should  now  sav,  would  have  suggested  what  he 
did.  But  maps  were  in  those  day  among  the  mysteries  of  the  learned ; 
and  it  is  hard  at  all  times  to  lift  human  progress  out  of  the  beaten 
track.  The  way  by  the  coast  was  thought  to  be  sure,  though  slow, 
and  all  experienced  men  looked  upon  Columbus  as  a  visionary. 
But  Columbus  pondered  on  his  map,  and  resolved  to  execute  the 
idea  which  filled  his  mind.  lie  visited  several  European  courts  to 
beg  their  sovereigns  to  equip  a  sufficient  expedition.  The  sover- 
eigns of  France  and  England  would  have  nothing  to  do  with 
him ;  and  it  was  not  without  long  hesitation  that  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  of  Spain  closed  with  his  offer.  They  furnished  him  with 
three  ships,  and  on  August  3,  1492,  the  first  expedition  of  Euro- 
peans sailed  westward  from  the  little  port  of  Palos  in  Andalucia, 
knowing  nothing  of  tlieir  destination  save  the  vague  names  of 
India  and  Cathay.  Three  generations  of  Europeans  had  been 
toiling  their  way  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Columbus  aimed  at 
outstripping  tliem  by  a  single  bold  venture.  He  knew  that  he  was 
nowhere  likely  to  suffer  worse  dangers  than  on  the  African  coast, 
and  that  he  was  sure  to  reacii  India  sooner  or  later  if  he  could 
sail  westward  without  mishap  or  obstacle.  On  October  i  his  dar- 
ing and  perseverance  were  rewarded  by  reaching  land.  It  was 
only  one  of  the  Bahama  Iskmds,  but  he  pushed  liis  inquiries  fur- 
ther, and  visited  the  Island  of  Hayti,  which  he  named  Espahola, 
or  Little  Spain. ^  Its  fertility,  if  not  its  wealth,  confirmed  him  in  the 
supposition  that  he  had  readied  one  of  the  finest  islands  of  the 
wealthy  Indies.  Here  he  procured  gold,  and  planted  a  colony; 
and  before  he  returned  to  Spain  he  had  visi<:ed  the  Windward 
group,  and  gained  a  general  idea  of  the  West  India  Islands.  But 
he  as  yet  never  suspccicd  th;it  a  va^t  continent  lay  between  him  and 
the  Indies  of  which  he  was  in  '-earcli.  He  returned  to  the  port  of 
Seville:  and  was  recei\'C(l  witli  grea.t  joy  bv  tlie  court  at  Barce- 
lona. The  P(^])c  confirmed  tlu"  Sj)ani-h  rnonarclis  in  their  new 
possessions;  and  C( ilnrnIiiN  w;i>  sent  on  a  sccomTi  vovage  with 
''  riie   Tiicanirc^  of    t^n.-'.fii >i;i   i--   "  Spaui:>!i,"    ;'  (■.    tlic    Spanish   Island. 


38  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

seventeen  vessels  and  1500  men.  This  time  he  arrived  at  the  island 
of  Dominica.  He  completed  the  conquest  of  Hayti,  and  built  a  fort 
to  command  the  mines  of  Cibao ;  but  he  returned  to  Spain  without 
having  added  very  much  to  the  discoveries  of  his  first  voyage.  On 
his  third  voyage  he  determined  to  try  to  reach  the  real  India  by 
standing  to  the  south.  In  this  way  he  came  upon  Trinidad  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco;  and  this  vast  river  convinced  him  that 
he  had  at  length  reached  the  mainland.  He  proceeded  thence  once 
more  to  Espanola ;  but  by  this  time  the  intrigues  of  the  enemies 
whom  his  successes  had  raised  up  had  done  their  work.  A  com- 
missioner was  sent  out  to  inquire  into  the  charges  aginst  him,  and 
he  sent  the  great  Columbus  back  to  Spain  in  irons.  He  was  never 
restored  to  the  government  of  his  colony,  but  he  was  allowed  to 
make  another  voyage  to  seek  the  way  to  the  real  India,  in  which 
he  of  course  failed.  Meanwhile,  the  mines  of  Espanola  were  being 
worked  by  the  forced  labor  of  the  natives,  and  the  Spaniards  were 
confirmed  in  their  notion  that  the  destiny  of  the  New  World  was 
merely  to  furnish  plenty  of  the  precious  metals  to  Europe. 

While  the  Portuguese  sailors  were  pushing  their  way  league 
by  league  round  the  coast,  sagacious  eyes  watched  their  progress 
at  home,  and  when  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  reached  it  was 
time  to  prepare  for  the  great  day  when  they  would  reach  the 
shores  of  India.  John  II.  dispatched  thither  two  adventurous 
young  men,  named  Covilhao  and  Paiva,  in  order  that  the  Portu- 
guese captains  might  know  what  to  look  for  when  they  got  there. 
We  can  scarcely  realize  the  hazard  and  romance  that  attached  to 
this  journey  less  than  four  centuries  ago.  The  land  to  be  traversed 
was  in  the  hands  of  fanatical  Alohammedans.  Few  Jews,  and 
fewer  Christians,  had  ever  returned  from  seeing  the  Eastern 
Ocean,  and  the  monarclis  who  reigned  on  its  shores  were  the 
heroes  of  strange  legends,  which  came  to  European  ears  only 
tlirough  tlie  ]\loors  of  Egypt  and  Tunis.  The  two  pioneers  took 
ship  for  Alexandria,  and  sailed  up  the  Nile  to  Cairo,  where  they 
joined  a  caravan  for  Aden,  Here  they  parted,  Paiva  to  explore 
westward,  Covilhao  eastward.  The  late  of  Paiva  was  never 
known;  he  prol)aljly  perished  in  an  attempt  to  penetrate  the  interior 
of  Africa.  Covilhao  sailed  for  India.  He  visited  Cochin,  Cananor, 
Calicut,  and  Goa,  returned  to  Aden,  and  sent  dispatches  thence 
which  reached  Eisbon  in  time  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  great  navi- 
gator who  first  brought  a  European  vessel  to  an  Indian  port.     He 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  39 

1450-1580 

then  went  to  Abyssinia,  and  visited  the  court  of  the  Negus,  a  Chris- 
tian potentate  formerly  well  known  to  the  Western  world  by  the 
name  of  Prester  John,  wlience  he  never  returned ;  but  long  before 
he  died  he  must  have  learned  that  his  countrymen  had  not  only 
reached  India,  but  won  there  a  great  dominion,  and  possessed 
themselves  of  the  most  flourishing  commerce  in  the  w-orld.  Vasco 
da  Gama  sailed  July  i8,  1497,  soon  after  receiving  the  report  of 
Covilhao.  He  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  fulfilling  at  last 
the  presage  of  its  name,  and  after  enduring  many  dangers  in  those 
unknown  seas,  arrived  at  length  at  Calicut,  after  a  voyage  of  thir- 
teen months.  This  feat  was  incomparably  more  difficult  and  haz- 
ardous than  that  of  Columbus,  who  reached  the  West  Indies  in 
about  two  months :  and  Columbus  with  his  mutinous  crew  and 
slight  resources  would  probably  have  turned  back  before  he  had 
accomplished  a  tenth  part  of  the  voyage. 

Nor  did  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  produce  to  Spain  results 
at  all  to  be  compared  with  those  ^vhich  Portugal  attained  through 
that  of  Vasco.  The  West  Indies  had  been  reached  by  the  Span- 
iards, but  their  inhabitants  were  savages,  and  nothing  was  as  yet 
known  of  the  two  great  aboriginal  nations  of  ^Mexico  and  Peru. 
But  the  Portuguese  had  touched  the  rich  civilizatitMi  of  the  great 
East,  with  wdiich  Europe  and  Western  Asia  had  traded  from 
time  immemorial.  The  joy  and  expectation  which  Vasco's  return 
excited  at  Lisbon  were  unlimited.  Xew  expeditions  were  sent 
out,  and  now  commenced  that  military  subjection  of  the  East  to 
the  West,  established  not  for  territorial  dominion,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trade,  which  continues  undiminished  in  our  own  times.  Clad 
in  armor,  armed  witli  firelocks,  and  already  well  practiced  in  the 
arts  of  conquest  I)y  ;i  hundred  years'  experience  of  Africa,  the 
Portuguese  settled  williout  mucli  resistance  wherever  they  pleased 
on  the  Indian  coasts.  At  this  time,  and  for  long  afterward,  we 
must  remember  that,  excepting  luu'ope,  whenever  we  speak  of  a 
country,  we  sjieak  principally  of  its  sealjoard.  The  peninsula  of 
India,  so  lately  as  a  century  ago,  was  scircely  known  except  by 
the  names  of  the  Alalabar  or  \\'estcrn  Coast,  and  the  Coromandel, 
or  Eastern,  The  petty  sovereigns  of  these  coasts,  oppressed  by 
their  lords  in  the  interior,  allied  themselves  with  the  newcomers, 
and  acknowledged  themselves  vassals  of  Emmanuel  the  Great.  The 
maritime  Mohammedan.^  of  the  \\:i>{.  \\liom  the  newcomer-^  i[\>o 
called  -Moors,  were  neither  su  rich,  nor  so  united  as  those  (A  tlie 


40  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

West,  and  the  ne\vcomers  knew  how  to  deal  with  them.  Many 
entered  the  Portuguese  service  as  pilots  and  sailors,  and  those  who 
opposed  them  could  make  no  effectual  resistance.  The  Portuguese 
were  soon  lords  of  the  chief  ports  of  India.  In  the  king's  name 
they  bought  the  merchandise  of  India,  and  shipped  it  to  Lisbon, 
whither  the  barks  of  other  nations  now  found  their  way,  and  where 
the  stuffs,  spices,  and  precious  stones  and  woods  of  India  were 
sold  much  cheaper  than  they  could  be  sold  in  Venice,  after  they  had 
borne  the  cost  of  land-carriage  and  trans-shipment,  and  the  ar- 
bitrary customs  duties  of  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  This  splendid 
commercial  conquest  was  of  course  in  its  very  nature  but  a  tem- 
porary thing.  A  small  nation  like  Portugal  could  scarcely  expect 
to  keep  so  vast  an  acquisition.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  Portuguese 
might  have  kept  it  longer,  if  they  had  had  a  succession  of  able 
and  honest  officers  on  the  spot,  and  a  sound  and  fixed  policy  at 
home. 

We  have  said  that  the  colonization  of  the  Spainards  and 
Portuguese  belongs  to  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Portuguese  in  their 
new  pursuits  followed  closely  a  famous  European  model.  The 
Republic  of  Venice,  whose  trade  they  were  supplanting,  had  pur- 
sued commerce  as  its  chief  object,  and  the  attention  of  the  Por- 
tuguese was  turned  in  the  same  direction.  Colonization,  in  our 
modern  sense,  was  not  thought  of.  The  coast  of  South  Africa 
did  not  stay  tliem  on  their  course,  and  the  shores  of  Asia  were 
already  v>ell  peopled.  Even  had  they  been  empty  and  under  a  more 
temperate  sky,  the  mailed  vassals  of  Emmanuel  would  have  been 
little  disposed  to  settle  and  drive  the  plow  there,  as  Englishmen 
have  done  in  America  and  Australia.  Nor  were  there  rich  mines, 
as  in  Spanish  America,  which  only  awaited  the  enforced  toil  of 
natives  or  African  negroes  to  yield  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
treasure.  What  offered  was  an  existing  trade,  and  it  was  the  rich.- 
est  trade  in  tlie  workl.  The  Portuguese  took  the  trade  and  were 
content.  Tlie  nation  which  had  taken  three  generations  to  toil 
round  the  coast  of  Africa  was  not  a  people  of  new  ideas.  They 
knew  of  but  one  commercial  system  to  be  followed  as  a  model,  but 
that  was  tlie  greatest  and  the  most  successful  in  Europe,  and  it  was 
in  the  zenitli  of  its  glory.  Venice  carried  on  much  of  its  vast  trade 
through  its  foreign  possessions  or  colonics — through  Cyprus, 
Crete,  Iuib(x;a,  and  the  Alorea,  and  the  numerous  settlements  which 
fringed  the  yEgcan  Sea.     Tl:c  colonial  i^ystcm  of  Venice  was  near 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  41 

1450-1580 

Upon  five  hundred  years  old,  and  it  had  been  successful,  though 
the  hard  government  of  the  Republic  is  proved  by  the  many  revolts 
against  it.  Each  of  its  colonies  had  its  governor  or  vice-doge,  who 
was  not  allowed  to  hold  his  office  more  than  two  years.  He  was 
assisted  by  a  council  of  noble  Venetians,  and  by  some  other 
officials ;  but  the  people  of  the  place  were  allowed  no  share  in  the 
government.  The  same  system  was  applied  by  the  Portuguese  to 
India,  and  a  viceroy  was  appointed,  for  a  term  of  three  years, 
to  exercise  the  authority  of  the  crown  over  its  new  vassals,  and  to 
direct  and  extend  the  trade  which  was  carried  on  in  its  name  with 
Lisbon.  The  first  vicero3%  Almeida,  a  nobleman  of  Emmanuel's 
court,  w^as  sent  out  in  1505.  He  was  an  able  administrator;  but 
it  is  to  the  talents  of  his  successor,  Albuquerque,  that  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Portuguese  dominion  is  chiefly  due.  Under  Almeida 
the  Portuguese  settled  in  Ceylon,  but  it  was  not  until  15 18  that 
they  were  strong  enough  there  to  obtain  the  monopoly  of  its  fine 
cinnamon,  the  finest  spice  which  the  earth  produces. 

The  harbor  of  Calicut,  the  commercial  capital  of  the  Malabar 
coast,  was  scarcely  accessible  to  the  great  vessels  of  the  Portu- 
guese; and  the  first  thoughts  of  the  new  viceroy  were  given  to  the 
selection  of  a  new^  port,  to  be  a  center  for  the  commerce  of  the 
Indies.  A  happy  chance  made  him  master  of  Goa,  a  strong  mili- 
tary position,  and  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world.  For 
nearly  a  century  the  commerce  of  the  East  with  Europe  went  forth 
from  this  port  to  Lisbon.  A  great  loss  fell  upon  the  Italian  re- 
publics, and  upon  Egypt  and  Turkey.  /Mexandria,  with  Aleppo 
and  Trebizond  in  the  ILast,  Venice,  with  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg 
in  the  West,  were  almost  forsaken.  Lisk-on  received  the  treasures 
of  the  East,  and  dis])cnscd  tliem  to  Eurojie  through  the  port  of 
Antwerp,  which  became  so  ilironged  \vit!i  goods  and  merchants 
that  it  was  necessary  in  15  ^''^  to  jnill  dc.Wii  its  walls  and  enlarge 
it.  It  was  not  Hkelv  that  c'lker  V^cnice  or  Egypt  would  tamely 
submit  to  this  grand  rcvolnti.r'n  iii  commerce.  The  Sultan  of 
k^gypt,  wk(j  levied  a  custi  n.i  of  five  por  cent,  upon  all  merchandise 
that  entered  his  doniinions.  ;in(i  of  ten  per  cent,  more  upon  all 
that  quitted  them,  soon  felt  a  falling  off  in  his  revenues.  He  rep- 
resented to  Venice  tiic  necessity  dt  dis])nting  the  Indian  Sea  with 
the  newcomers,  'klic  !\cd  Sea  lias  no  wood  for  shipbuilding,  but 
the  Venetians,  ivt-iuiglii  \:i>'''i\  to  Cairo,  which  was  carried  bv  camels 
to  Suez,  and  Suez  in  1508  had  ready  a  small  fleet  to  resist  the  new- 


4^  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

comers.  The  wise  Portuguese  had  foreseen  this,  and  had  already 
taken  measures  to  secure  the  mastery  of  the  Red  Sea.  But  the 
Egyptian  vessels  made  their  way  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  and, 
joined  with  those  of  the  Moors  of  India,  gave  the  Portuguese  so 
much  trouble  that  Albuquerque  thought  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
matter  by  destroying  the  port  of  Suez.  His  vessels,  however, 
retreated,  unable  to  encounter  the  difficult  navigation  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  Albuquerque  bethought  him  of  another  plan,  which  was 
nothing  less  than  that  the  African  vassals  and  allies  of  Portugal 
should  turn  the  Nile  into  the  Red  Sea,  so  as  to  lay  Egypt  desert. 
The  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Turks  under  Selim  I.  in  1516  re- 
moved all  danger  for  the  present  on  the  side  of  Egypt,  and  in  the 
meantime  Albuquerque  greatly  strengthened  the  Portuguese  po- 
sition by  making  himself  master  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Ormuz, 
a  town  occupied  by  a  mixed  race  of  Mohammedan  traders,  and 
tributary  to  Persia,  was  the  mart  for  the  trade  of  Persia  and 
India.  Albuquerque  reduced  it,  and  when  the  Shah  of  Persia 
sent  to  demand  tribute  of  him,  he  sent  him  cannon-balls  and 
grenades.  Flushed  with  his  successes,  he  now  turned  his  attention 
to  the  Eastern  Seas,  and  cast  longing  eyes  on  the  great  port  of 
^Malacca.  Outrages  committed  upon  his  spies  by  the  Malays, 
already  forewarned  of  the  coming  danger  through  the  Moors, 
afforded  him  a  ready  pretext.  Malacca  was  taken  by  storm 
in  151 1,  and  the  kings  of  Siam  and  Pegu  at  once  submitted  and 
offered  him  their  commerce.  Nor  did  Albuquerque  rest  until  he 
had  established  the  Portuguese  empire  in  the  utmost  limits  of  the 
Old  World,  and  a  power  which  half  a  century  before  had  been 
scarcely  heard  of  in  Europe  had  become  supreme  on  all  the  coasts 
of  iVfrica  and  Asia.  The  most  profitable  of  all  the  Eastern  trades 
was  that  in  the  spices  of  the  Moluccas,  especially  in  nutmegs  and 
mace,  the  taste  for  vvliich  had  rapidly  spread  in  the  Middle  Ages 
from  India  and  Persia  throughout  Europe.  Following  every- 
where the  footsteps  of  the  Arab  traders,  the  Portuguese,  under 
the  viceroy's  directions,  established  themselves  at  Ternat  and 
Tidore.  These  unexampled  successes  earned  him  the  jealousy  of 
Emmanuel,  and  he  died  at  Goa,  poor  and  in  disgrace,  1515.  Al- 
buquerque was  not  merely  a  great  conqueror.  Fie  was  a  just  and 
humane  governor ;  and  long  after  his  death  the  poor  Hindoos  of- 
fered prayers  at  his  ti')mb  against  the  injustice  of  his  successors. 
While  the  Portuguese,  enkindled  with  the  hope  of  gain  and  the 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  43 

1450-1580 

old  hatred  of  Mohammedanism,  were  everywhere  thrusting  tlic 
Arabs  from  the  commerce  of  the  East,  the  Spaniards  were  but 
beginning  to  discover  the  extent  and  character  of  their  new  pos- 
sessions. As  soon  as  the  nature  of  their  explorations  was  known, 
the  Pope,  assuming  to  exercise  the  same  feudal  authority  which  he 
claimed  in  Europe,  limited  his  grant  to  Portugal  to  the  meridian  of 
lOO  degrees  west  of  the  Azores,  all  west  of  this  line  being  conceded 
to  Spain  (1493).  But  in  1494  the  two  powers  revised  the  boun- 
dary by  the  treaty  of  Tordesillas,  fixing  the  demarcation  line  at 
370  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands.  As  Cabral,  a  Portu- 
guese, on  the  Indian  voyage,  was  making  his  way  round  Africa, 
he  stood  out  to  sea  more  than  usual  to  avoid  the  calms  which 
were  encountered  on  the  coast,  and  he  thus  fell  on  the  shore  of 
Brazil,  of  which  he  took  possession,  in  1500,  claiming  it  under  the 
treaty.  Portugal  claimed  the  new-found  coast,  for  though  a  Span- 
iard named  Pinzon  had  previously  touched  there,  it  clearly  had 
no  connection  with  the  Spanish  Indies.  Thus  America  was  as 
it  were  a  second  time  discovered,  and  this  time  by  an  accident. 
A  treaty  was  made,  by  which  the  possessions  of  Portugal  were 
limited  to  the  coast  south  of  the  Amazon  River,  and  the  Spaniards 
confined  themselves  to  their  old  possessions,  which  they  now  began 
to  explore  more  narrowly.  Espanola  was  already  taken,  and  be- 
tween the  years  1508  and  15 10  they  occupied  the  other  Great 
Antilles,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Jamaica.  In  the  meantime  the 
continent  northward  of  the  bay  was  gradually  explored,  and  in- 
telligence gained  of  the  ^Mexicans,  a  nation  which  had  made  some 
advances  in  wealth  and  civilization.  The  prosperity  of  ]\Iexico 
was  chiefly  due  to  the  cultivation  of  maize  or  Indian  corn ;  but 
the  eyes  of  the  Spaniards  saw  nothing  in  it  but  a  display  of  gold 
and  silver.  They  cared  nothing  for  peaceful  commerce,  and  they 
at  once  set  about  making  a  comi)lete  conquest.  The  population 
was  collected  in  towns  and  villages,  and  easily  overpowered  by  one 
or  two  desperate  efi^orts.  W'itli  the  aid  of  the  neighboring  nation 
of  the  Tlascalans,  Ferdinand  Cortcz  made  himself  master  of  Mex- 
ico, 1 5 19-152 1.  ]\Iuc]i  has  been  written  of  the  cruelty  and  perfidy 
with  which  this  conquest  was  carrictl  out;  but  cruelty  and  perfidy 
were  then  very  common  in  Ktn'ope,  and  the  conquests  of  Cortez 
certainly  relieved  the  ^^[exicans  from  an  antiquated  and  oppressive 
government,  and  from  a  cniel  and  senseless  religion.  The  con- 
(|uest  of  Mexico  was  followed  by  many  settlements  on  the  coast, 


44  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

where  there  were  convenient  harbors,  and  in  this  w^ay  were 
founded  the  towns  of  Cumana,  Porto  Bello,  Carthagena,  Vera 
Cruz,  and  many  others.  In  the  meantime  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa 
had  made  a  great  discovery.  He  sailed  round  Cuba,  conquered  it, 
and  left  it,  finding  it  poor  in  gold  and  silver.     He  then  followed 


SPANISH  AMERICA 


the  track  of  Columbns  to  Darien.  He  crossed  tlie  Lsthmus  and 
discfjvered  tlie  ocean  beyond,  which  from  its  contrast  with  the 
stormy  Atlantic  was  called  the  Pacific.^  Cruising  about  on  its 
coasts,  ever  inquiring  for  gold  and  silver,  the  Spaniards  learned 
that  far  south  there  was  a  land  where  they  might  have  as  much 
of  either  as  they  pleased.     This  land  was  Peru,  like  Mexico,  a  state 

2  This  Pacific  Ocean  was  first  so  called  by  Magellan,  who  entered  it  through 
the  straits  bearing  his  name  in  1520.  The  Spaniards,  approaching  it  over  the 
isthmus,  called  it  the  South  Sea. 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  45 

1450-1580 

which  had  grown  from  utter  barbarism  into  such  a  kind  of  half- 
civihzation  as  might  be  expected.  The  prosperity  of  Peru,  sucli 
as  it  was,  seems  to  have  been  founded  on  some  rude  discoveries 
in  engineering,  particularly  in  the  art  of  irrigation.  A  ruHng  caste, 
called  the  Incas,  who  taught  the  worship  of  the  sun.  held  the  people 
in  subjection;  and  tlic  Peruvians  had  a  national  religion  and  his- 
tory, and  the  sense  of  these  never  forsook  them  during  their  long 
subjection  to  the  Spaniards.  Peru  was  never  so  completely  re- 
duced to  subjection  as  jMexico.  Balboa  reached  this  distant  land 
and  took  possession  of  it  in  the  Spanish  name ;  but  the  conquest 
of  Peru  was  first  undertaken  by  Francis  Pizarro  in  1525.  In  ten 
years  it  was  accomplished,  though  in  a  manner  far  more  dis- 
graceful to  humanity  than  tliat  of  ^Mexico.  There  is  a  bright  side 
to  the  character  of  Cortez,  but  that  of  Pizarro  is  utterly  detestable. 
He  was,  however,  an  able  governor.  He  built  the  new  capital 
of  Lima  instead  of  Cuzco,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Incas.  and  here 
he  was  at  last  assassinated  by  his  own  creatures.  These  proceed- 
ings were  scarcely  heard  of  in  Europe,  and  no  attempts  were  for 
a  long  time  made  to  control  the  rapacity  of  the  conquerors.  The 
colonial  history  of  Spain  does  not  properly  begin  until  some  years 
later,  when  the  great  iMiiperor  Charles  V.  in  1542  introduced  what 
were  called  the  Xew  Laws.  At  this  time  the  whole  country  was 
regarded  in  theory  as  a  feudal  possession  of  the  King  of  Spain, 
and  a  council  was  established  for  its  administration  (1511).  This 
council,  which  sat  at  Madrid,  was  called  the  Royal  Council  of  the 
Indie? ;  but  no  real  control  at  home  was  established  until  the  ap- 
pointment of  viceroys,  as  Portugal  had  already  done  in  the  East. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  element  in  the  settlement  of  Spanish 
America  was  the  early  introduction  of  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion. Churches  and  con\ents  ^\•cre  hvMt  in  large  numbers,  and 
the  rite  of  baptism  was  forced  up'  a  t!ic  natives,  partly  as  a  token 
of  submission.  Aticl  llic  Pulls  which  I'erdinan.d  procured  ivoni 
two  successive  Popes  ga\'e  him  fuli  p^wcr  over  tlie  church  in  his 
new  possessions.  Py  tliat  of  1501.  the  Pope  relinciuished  all  con- 
trol over  its  rex'cnues ;  and  h}'  that  of  1508  all  claims  upon  its  pat- 
ronage. Xo  Pull  w;is  ;iilowed  to  go  to  .Vnierica  unless  it  had  been 
passed  by  the  Council  of  tlie  Indies;  and  the  church  thus  became 
a  great  instrument  of  gin'crnmcnt.  The  priests,  UKTreover,  made 
great  efforts  to  sliield  tiic  n;',livcs  from  cruelty  and  oppression,  and 
it  was  chielly  owing  to  tlic  hunianc  Las  Casus.  Bishop  of  Chiapa 


46  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

in  Mexico,  that  stringent  laws  were  made  for  their  protection. 
No  government  has  ever  made  so  many  laws  for  the  protection  of 
the  natives  in  its  colonies  as  the  Spanish ;  but  it  lacked  the  power  to 
execute  them.  Las  Casas,  moreover,  introduced  one  cruel  system 
in  the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  another.  He  suggested  the  em- 
ployment of  African  negroes  in  the  mines  instead  of  the  native 
Americans,  and  though  the  Spanish  never  engaged  in  the  African 
slave  trade  themselves,  they  now  began  to  buy  slaves  of  the  Portu- 
guese. 

Wherever  a  petty  prince  reigned  on  the  African  coast,  the 
Portuguese  landed  to  trade  with  him.  One  of  the  earliest  of  the 
Portuguese  factories  was  placed  at  Sofala,  which  was  believed  to 
be  the  Ophir  of  the  Bible,  the  port  of  the  rich  land  of  Mozambique, 
and  this  they  have  kept  ever  since.  The  coast  of  Zanzibar,  with 
its  ports,  made  famous  by  Milton, 

"  Mombaza,  and  Quiloa,  and  Melind," 

was  at  once  secured  by  them ;  and  their  superior  vessels  enabled 
them  to  compete  successfully  with  the  ]\Ioors  in  every  branch  of 
the  local  trade.  But  they  never  even  heard  of  the  vast  Victoria 
Nyanza  which  lay  in  the  lofty  mountains  over  their  heads,  or  of 
the  rich  tablelands  lying  in  mild  air  around  it ;  they  did  not  even 
see  the  capacity  of  South  Africa  for  receiving  European  colo- 
nies ;  they  scarcely  anywhere  ventured  to  explore  inland,  and 
their  energy  was  spent  on  the  extension  of  their  commerce  further 
and  further  eastward.  Albuquerque  was  the  greatest  of  the  Por- 
tuguese viceroys.  None  of  his  successors  equaled  him  in  wisdom 
and  in  courage,  but  they  executed  his  project  of  establishing  com- 
merce with  China.  Though  the  high-handed  proceedings  of  the 
Portuguese  at  ilrst  caused  distrust,  and  for  several  years  they  were 
excluded  from  the  Cliinese  ports,  tlicv  were  at  length  readmitted, 
and  the  hjn])er('>r  of  China,  linding  tlicm  useful  in  putting  down 
])iracy  gave  tlicni  Macao,  at  the  mouth  of  tlie  Canton  River,  wliich 
])ro\e(l  adwintageous  for  llie  commerce  which  they  afterward  car- 
ried on  with  Japan.  In  the  meantime  the  wealthiest  of  all  the 
trades,  tliat  of  tlie  Moluccas,  was  strengthened  and  extended.  But 
this  great  commercial  empire  contained  the  seeds  of  its  own  decay, 
llic  Portuguese  made  llic  most  of  tlie  coasting  trade,  whicli  they 
carried  on   for  their  own  advantage,  to  the  neglect  of  the  great 


P  O  II  T  U  G  U  E  S  i:     A  N  I)     S  T  A  N  I  S  H 


47 


1450-1580 


trade  with  Europe;  they  iiitennarried  with  the  Asiatics,  and  grad- 
ually corrupted  their  race,  and  their  grasping  policy  kept  alive  the 
jealousy  and  distrust  of  the  native  princes.  But  while  the  heart 
of  their  domination  was  being  weakened,  it  extended  to  all  ap- 
pearance more  wonderfully  than  ever.  The  Viceroy  John  dc 
Castro  defeated  the  Mohammedan  King  of  Cambay,  wiio  pos- 
sessed himself  for  a  time  of  Diu,  and  his  successes  were  celebrated 
by  a  grand  triumph  in  the  manner  of  the  ancients.  The  Portu- 
guese flocked  to  the  East  in  such  numbers  that  the  little  kingdom 
at  home  was  half  depopulated.     The  trade  of  China  led  naturally 


to  the  acquisition  of  that  of  Japan  (1542).  Thus  the  whole  trade 
of  the  new-found  coasts  of  tlie  Old  World  was  in  their  hands,  and 
they  were  in  possession  of  the  largest  and  finest  of  the  settlements 
in  the  Xew.  For  Brazil,  on  which  the  Portuguese  sliips  had  been 
cast  by  accident,  liad  been  f(^nnd  to  unite  in  itself  tlie  capa- 
bilities of  every  part  of  the  world  in  which  Europeans  have  settled, 
though  hap])ily  gold  and  siU'cr  had  not  yet  been  discovered, 
and  the  colonists  betook  themselves  from  the  first  to  agriculture. 
The  first  permanent  settlements  on  this  coast  were  made  by  Jews, 
exiled  by  the  persecution  of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  govern- 
ment suj^plemented  tlicse  l)y  sending  out  criminals  of  all  kinds. 
But  gradually  the  C(Miscr]ncncc  of  Brazil  became  recognized,  and 
as  afterward  happened  in  Xew  England,  the  nobility  at  home 
asked   to    share    the    land    anion"-   themselves.     Emmanuel    would 


48  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

not  countenance  snch  a  claim,  but  this  great  prince  died  in  1521, 
and  his  successor,  John  IIL,  extended  to  Brazil  the  same  sys- 
tem which  had  been  adopted  in  Madeira  and  the  Azores.  The 
whole  seacoast  of  Brazil  was  parceled  out  by  feudal  grants. 
It  was  divided  into  captaincies,  each  fifty  leagues  in  length,  with 
no  limits  in  the  interior;  and  these  were  granted  out  as  male 
fiefs,  with  absolute  power  over  the  natives,  such  as  at  that 
time  existed  over  the  serfs  who  tilled  the  soil  in  Europe.  But 
the  native  Brazilians  were  neither  so  easy  a  conquest  as  the  Pe- 
ruvians, nor  so  easily  induced  to  labor;  and  the  Portuguese  now 
began  to  bring  negroes  from  the  Guinea  coast.  This  traffic  in 
human  flesh  had  long  been  vigorously  pursued  in  various  parts 
of  Europe;  the  Portuguese  now  introduced  it  to  America.  The 
settlers  of  Brazil  were,  properly  speaking,  the  first  European 
colonists.  For  they  sold  their  possessions  at  home,  and  brought 
t'leir  households  with  them  to  the  new  country.  Thus  they 
gradually  formed  the  heart  of  a  new  nation,  whereas  the  chief 
Spaniards  always  returned  home  after  a  certain  tenure  of  their 
offices,  and  those  who  remained  in  the  colony  descended  to  the 
rank  of  the  conquered  natives.  Many  of  those  who  came  to 
Brazil  had  already  served  in  the  expeditions  to  the  East ;  and  they 
naturally  perceived  that  the  coast  of  America  might  raise  the  pro- 
ductions of  India.  Hence  Brazil  early  became  a  plantation  colony, 
and  its  prosperity  is  very  much  due  to  the  culture  of  the  sugar  cane. 
The  Portuguese  were  greatly  assisted,  both  in  the  East  and  the 
West,  by  the  efforts  of  the  newly-founded  order  of  the  Jesuits. 
The  Portuguese  of  the  East  had  almost  forgotten  justice  and 
mercy,  and  the  arrival  of  the  devoted  Xavier  in  Goa  in  1542  pro- 
duced a  moral  revolution.  Enmities  were  quenched,  and  frauds 
repaired,  after  his  wonderful  street-preaching,  and  when  he  died 
in  1552,  on  the  eve  of  preaching  Christianity  in  China,  he  was  said 
to  have  drawn  a  million  of  infidels  into  the  fold  of  the  Clnirch. 
From  his  mission  to  Japan  (1549)  the  Portuguese  date  the  real 
establishm.ent  of  the  lucrative  commerce  of  which  they  had  ob- 
tained the  monopoly;  anrl,  satisfied  with  the  success  of  liis  mis- 
sionaries, John  III.  in  the  same  year  sent  out  six  of  the  order  with 
the  first  governor  of  Brazil.  The  Jesuits  were  of  great  use  both 
to  the  Spaniards  and  ]V)rtuguese.  in  inducing  th.e  Tiulians  to  sub- 
mit to  their  rule. 

The  Englis-li  were  llie  first  people  who  followed  the  Spaniards 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  49 

1450-1580 

to  the  New  World.  John  Cabot  sailed  from  England  in  command 
of  two  of  Henry  VH.'s  ships,  in  1496,  and  discovered  the  islands 
of  St.  John  and  Newfoundland,  and  all  the  coast  from  Labrador 
to  Virginia.  The  French  followed  in  1506:  and  a  voyage  to  the 
New  World  was  made,  in  1523,  by  Verazzano,  another  Italian,  in 
the  service  of  the  King  of  France.  On  the  strength  of  these  voy- 
ages the  English  and  French  claimed  a  share  in  the  New  World. 
The  Spaniards,  however,  took  care .  to  occupy  every  part  which 
was  thought  to  produce  gold,  and  nothing  else  was  considered 
worth  the  expense  and  hazard  of  a  settlement.  The  French  after- 
ward made  war  with  Spain,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  piratic 
warfare  they  long  maintained  in  the  American  seas ;  and  their  own 
civil  wars,  which  followed,  fully  occupied  their  attention.  Never- 
theless, Cartier  in  1534  sailed  up  tlie  St.  Lawrence,  and  gave  the 
fertile  plain  which  is  now  the  province  of  Quebec  the  name  of 
New  France ;  and  some  Protestant  emigrants,  sent  out  by  Coligny 
to  the  tolerant  colony  of  Brazil,  which  did  not  as  yet  exclude 
strangers,  gave  that  country  the  name  of  Antarctic  France.  The 
St.  Lawrence  district  was  permanently  settled  b}-  the  French  in 
1608,  chiefly  because  of  the  fisheries  and  rich  fur  trade  carried  on 
with  the  North  American  Indians,  but  partly  because  it  was  sup- 
posed that  this  great  river  would  sooner  or  later  form  part  of  a 
highway  to  India;  but  Coligny's  jilans  in  Brazil  were  ruined  by  the 
treachery  of  his  agents.  Englisli  merchants,  moreover,  began  early 
to  venture  into  the  Northern  seas,  and  in  1536  Newfoundland  and 
Cape  Breton  Island  were  settled,  and  the  great  cod  fishery,  whicii 
has  e\-er  since  been  a  mine  of  wealth,  was  begun.  .About  the  same 
time  English  traders  first  ventured  to  the  Guinea  coast.  But  the 
growth  of  that  mighty  system  of  trade,  which  has  since  trans- 
formed the  face  of  the  world,  was  slow;  and  it  met  with  little 
encouragement  at  home.  Henry  Vlll.  was  full  of  his  mod-: 
tournaments  and  his  despotic  polic}'.  nnd  though  tlie  English  were 
waxing  rich  they  lackcJ  sucli  a  field  for  employing  their  riclics  n- 
was  found  out  by  the  I'ortuguc.-c.  Meanwhile,  the  Turks  foniiil 
the  revenues  of  their  new  i)osscs>ion  of  Fgypt  almost  destroyed  bv 
this  eliversion  of  tb.c  India  trade.  1'he  l\u"ks  were  at  this  time 
a  first-rate  nawil  power,  for  in  1521,  to  the  great  alarm  of  the 
whole  western  wc^rld,  the  fleet  of  Solyninn  the  ]\f'i?;nificcnt  h.ad 
proved  a  m;itch  for  tlie  it'iilcd  jIoc Is  of  the  A'cnetian  Rcptil)l:c.  the 
Finpcror,  and  the  Pope.      The  proiii-  of  the  King  of  Portugal  from 


50  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

the  spice  trade  alone  were  estimated  in  1529  at  the  sum  of  200,000 
ducats ;  and  it  is  not  wonderful  that  Solyman  resolved  to  strike 
one  more  blow  for  the  riches  and  empire  of  the  world.  He 
dispatclied  an  armada  of  eighty  ships  in  1537  from  Suez  to  attack 
Diu.  One  of  the  guns  cast  by  Solyman  for  this  expedition  lies  in 
the  Tower  Yard  in  London,  It  is  still  one  of  the  longest  and 
heaviest  pieces  in  the  place :  so  that  we  can  form  some  idea  of  his 
artillery  and  of  the  ships  which  carried  it.  But  the  Portuguese 
totally  defeated  him :  and  the  Turks  have  never  renewed  the  at- 
tempt. Upon  the  possession  of  India,  it  has  been  thought  that 
they  might  possibly  at  this  time  have  founded  universal  empire, 
and  played  the  part  of  the  Romans  in  Europe  after  the  conquest  of 
Carthage,  However  this  may  be,  such  an  event  would  certainly 
have  retarded  the  advance  of  Europe  by  many  years;  and  had 
there  not  been  a  Vasco  to  show  Europe  the  way  to  India,  and  an 
Albuquerque  to  establish  her  power  on  a  firm  foundation,  the  op- 
portunity would  perhaps  have  been  lost  forever. 

The  conquest  of  the  seacoast  of  Terra  Firma,  as  Columbus 
had  called  the  north  of  the  South  American  continent,  was  effected 
together  with  that  of  Peru;  Chile  was  occupied  in  1541;  and  in 
1550  a  permanent  settlement  was  made  there  by  the  foundation  of 
the  town  of  Concepcion.  The  Plata  River  was  discovered,  but 
not  yet  successfully  settled;  and  by  far  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  Spanish  possessions  were  the  two  conquered  nations.  The 
settlements  in  Terra  Firma,  Chile,  and  the  district  of  the  Plata 
River,  were  maintained  at  a  great  expense,  rather  to  keep  other 
nations  out  than  because  they  were  of  any  value  in  themselves. 
They  were  inhabited  by  unsettled  tribes  of  Indians ;  and  the 
humane  kiws  of  Charles  V,  protected  them,  as  far  as  laws  could 
avail,  from  the  cruelty  which  had  been  exercised  in  the  earlier 
conquests.  Me  declared  the  Indians  to  be  free  men ;  fixed  the 
services  and  tributes  which  they  were  to  yield,  and  allowed  them 
to  live  in  their  own  villages  and  to  choose  their  own  caciques, 
as  in  the  old  times,  ]\Iexico  and  Peru  were  of  more  value, 
and  their  importance  was  doubled  by  the  discovery  of  the 
rich  mines  of  Zacotecas,  and  especially  of  Potosi,  An  Indian, 
who  was  pursuing  a  wild  goat  up  the  side  of  a  mountain,  seized 
a  shrub  to  save  himself  from  a  fall;  the  shrub  gave  way  under 
his  hand,  and  he  ('il)>er\c<l  that  a  mass  of  silver  adhered  to  its 
r(.)ots.     On  this  barren  site  speedily  sprang  up  the  largest  town  in 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  51 

1450-1580 

all  America.  The  mines  of  Veragua  and  New  Granada  were 
found  to  yield  a  small  supply  of  gold.  Shortly  afterward  a  mine 
of  native  quicksilver  was  discovered ;  and  as  this  metal  was  then 
necessary  for  the  refinement  of  gold  and  silver  ore,  the  produc- 
tion of  the  precious  metals  was  greatly  stimulated.  The  discovery 
of  them  was  left  to  private  enterprise,  a  certain  proportion,  at 
first  one-fifth,  but  gradually  reduced  to  one-twentieth,  being  re- 
served to  the  crown.  Wherever  the  precious  metals  are  found, 
there  comes,  even  at  this  day,  when  mining  has  been  proved  to  be 
the  most  ruinous  of  all  speculations,  a  rush  of  all  nations;  and  the 
rush  in  those  days  would  have  been  far  greater  had  not  the  gov- 
ernment commenced  a  severe  system  of  commercial  restriction. 
The  government  had  been  already  remodeled  by  the  New  Laws 
of  Charles  V. ;  Spanish  America  was  divided  into  two  provinces 
and  committed  to  two  viceroys,  one  having  his  seat  at  ^lexico. 
and  one  at  Lima.  Each  was  attended  by  an  independent  bench  of 
magistrates,  called  an  audiencia,  from  which  there  was  an  ap- 
peal to  the  Council  of  the  Indies  at  'Madrid ;  this  device  was  copied 
from  the  colonial  system  of  Venice.  The  number  of  the  audi- 
encias  was  afterward  increased  to  ten,  and  that  of  the  viceroys 
to  four. 

An  ambitious  nation,  possessed  of  the  only  existing  ports  on 
the  Pacific  shore,  was  not  likely  to  stop  short  until  it  had  got  a 
footing  in  the  real  Indies.  Even  as  early  as  15 19  the  Spaniards 
had  taken  into  their  service  the  able  and  intrepid  Portuguese 
Magellan,  who  discovered  the  straits  at  the  south  of  the  new 
continent,  called  after  his  name,  and  on  his  way  to  India  discov- 
ered the  Philippine  Islands,  where  he  perished  in  1521.  And  here 
the  claims  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  under  ilie  Pope's  Bull  of  1493 
and  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas  came  into  conflict,  for  their  boun- 
dary was  fixed  only  on  one  side  of  the  globe.  At  length  the  Por- 
tuguese paid  350,000  ducats  in  respect  of  any  claims  which  Spain 
might  have  upon  the  }vIoluccas.  l)tit  Spain  maintained  her  hold 
upon  the  Philippines,  a  post  which  seriously  injured  the  trade 
of  Portugal  with  eastern  jVsia,  and  under  a  different  policy  might 
have  quite  superseded  it.  But  tlie  statesmen  of  Spain,  bent  on 
consolidating  their  con([ucsts.  pursued  tlie  system  of  commercial 
restriction  and  confined  the  trade  of  tlie  Philippines  to  Mexico. 
The  ]wrt  of  Acapiilco  was  iomulcd,  and  in  1 5()3  the  route  to  the 
IMnlippines.  1)\-  way  of  tlie  Eadroiics,   was  explored;  Manila  was 


52  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

built,  and  a  regular  trade  established.  The  great  galleon  took  five 
months  to  make  the  voyage  between  the  Philippines  and  America. 
It  arrived  at  Acapulco  in  December,  bearing  drugs,  spices,  China 
and  Japan  wares,  cotton  and  silk  stuffs,  gold  dust  and  precious 
stones  from  India,  At  the  same  time  the  great  yearly  treasure 
ship  came  in  from  Peru,  accompanied  by  several  others  from  Peru 
and  Chile,  and  the  great  fair  of  Acapulco  lasted  for  tliirty  days.  But 
though  the  vast  ships  which  plied  to  and  fro  were  freighted  with 
the  most  precious  products  of  the  two  worlds,  hardly  any  benefit 
was  derived  to  either  under  a  system  so  absurd.  The  Chinese,  who 
were  chiefly  interested  in  the  trade,  secured  most  of  the  profit; 
and  while  the  Portuguese,  and  still  more,  in  after  years,  the  Dutch, 
drew  untold  profits  from  the  spices  of  the  ^Moluccas,  the  Philip- 
pines would  probably  have  been  abandoned  had  it  not  been  for  the 
fact  that  the  Church  had  taken  a  firm  hold  there. 

Far  greater  than  that  of  New  Spain  and  the  East  Indies  was 
tlie  trade  of  New  Spain  and  Europe,  the  whole  of  which  passed 
through  Vera  Cruz,  the  seaport  of  ]\Iexico.  Hither  came  regularly 
the  annual  fleet  from  Cadiz,  consisting  of  several  large  vessels, 
with  three  or  four  men-of-war  as  a  convoy,  loaded  with  all  the 
exports  of  Europe.  It  may  be  said  that  every  nation  in  Europe, 
except  the  mother-country,  was  largely  interested  in  the  Mexican 
trade.  For  the  manufactures  of  Spain,  once  so  great  and  flourish- 
ing, had  come  to  an  end  with  her  influx  of  riches,  and  all  that  she 
contributed  to  this  vast  trade  was  a  little  wine  and  fruit.  As  to 
everything  else,  she  was  merely  the  factor  of  other  nations,  so  that 
the  only  advantage  that  came  to  Spain  from  her  colonial  pos- 
sessions was  the  profit  of  a  few  merchants  and  tlie  customs  duties. 
They  did  not,  as  in  England  and  France,  nourish  agriculture  and 
home  manufactures.  s]M-ead  wealth  and  plenty  through  all  ranks 
r)f  society,  and  offer  a  field  for  capital  and  labor.  ^Mexico  and 
Peru  remained  distinct  nations;  the  Indians,  and  all  who  were  born 
in  America,  were  treated  as  foreigners;  so  that  the  Spanish  col- 
onies remained  in  a  state  of  subjection  to  the  mother-country 
which  wanted  but  little  to  turn  it  into  one  of  hostility.  The  Span- 
ish Government  was  ieaUjus  and  cruel;  those  who  administered  it 
always  returned  to  Sjiain.  and  their  chief  object  was  to  make 
money  for  themscl\-es  during  the  term  of  their  office.  The  kings 
of  Spain  Avere  rcsoK-ctl  that  the  treasure  of  ]\Iexico  should  find  its 
way  to  them  and  to  thcin  alone.     But  if  the  exports  of  a  country 


PORTUGUESE     AND     SPANISH  53 

1450-1580 

are  to  be  limited  in  their  direction,  the  same  limitation  must  be  ex- 
tended to  the  imports.  As  no  American  silver  was  to  go  to  any 
other  country  than  Old  Spain,  it  followed  that  New  Spain  must 
supply  all  its  foreign  wants  from  Old  Spain,  and  the  consequence 
of  course  was  a  great  increase  in  the  price  paid  for  the  commodities 
of  Europe.  The  free  traders  of  other  nations  could  supply  New 
Spain  much  more  cheaply,  and  there  naturally  grew  up  a  great 
smuggling  trade  with  the  English,  Dutch,  and  French.  Cloth,  for 
instance,  purchased  in  Flanders  could  not  be  sold  in  Mexico  under 
three  times  its  original  price.  The  Spaniards  approved  of  this, 
because  it  brought  more  silver  into  Spain ;  but  the  real  advantage 
was  reaped  by  the  Dutch,  who  soon  carried  on  a  large  smuggling 
trade.  This  limitation  of  trade  to  the  vessels  of  the  m.other  coun- 
try seemed  so  profitable  that  it  was  speedily  copied  by  the  Portu- 
guese, and  in  after  times,  in  a  modified  form,  by  the  English.  But 
both  of  these  nations  began  by  leaving  the  trade  of  their  colonies 
quite  free.  The  trade  of  Peru  with  the  Old  World  was  carried 
on  by  way  of  Panama  and  P(^rtobello,  as  well  as  by  way  of  Aca- 
pulco.  Peru  supplied  scarcely  anything  l)ut  the  precious  metals, 
and  these  did  not  greatly  contribute  to  its  permanent  prosperity. 
New  mines  were  frequently  opened,  and  the  population  generally 
shifted  about  with  the  mines.  At  first  the  southern  part  of  Peru 
produced  abundance  of  wine  and  oil,  but  the  Spaniards,  believ- 
ing that  this  injured  their  o^vn  trade,  rooted  up  both  vines  and 
olives. 

We  have  thus  traced  in  their  order  three  distinct  sets  of 
events,  which  about  ccjmplete  the  first  century  of  colonial  history: 
I,  the  acquisition  of  the  India  trade  by  the  Poriuguese,  and  the 
settlement  of  the  same  people  in  P)razil ;  _'.  the  Spanish  conquest 
of  America;  3,  th.e  attcmi)ts  of  other  nations  to  establish  them- 
selves where  the  SiJan.iards  were  not  strong  enough  to  keep  them 
out.  We  have  seen  the  trade  of  ]un-oj)c  witli  the  East  diverted 
from  its  ancient  channels,  and  tlie  foresliadowing  of  the  greatest 
event  in  tlie  whole  course  of  lu'story,  the  transfer  of  the  center  of 
commerce  and  power  from  t!ie  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic 
shores  of  Europe.  1'h.c  \va\-e  ot  coming  cliange  already  touches 
the  shores  of  England  and  l''raricc.  destined  at  no  distant  dav  to  a 
great  struggle  for  tlic  conancrcc  of  the  world:  a  vast  current  of 
specie  has  been  l)rought  f ■■(  )m  tlie  Xew  World  and.  rapidly  diffused 
into  the  remote  shores  of  A.^ia.  stinnilatint>-  the  trade  of  all  conn- 


54:  ^COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1450-1580 

tries  but  the  one  which  imported  it;  at  least  one  new  nation  has 
been  founded,  of  unhmited  capacity  for  extension ;  colonization  and 
colonial  policy  have  taken  a  distinct  form,  though  the  wants  and 
resources  of  the  new  countries  are  as  yet  not  fully  estimated ;  and  the 
social  and  political  forms  of  the  old  country  have  been  transplanted 
to  the  new  with  scarcely  any  modification.  The  next  step  in 
progress  is  due  to  a  people  too  obscure  to  have  been  hitherto  men- 
tioned. In  the  following  chapter  we  shall  see  feudalism  eveiy- 
where  yielding  to  the  inroads  of  a  commercial  nation,  and  the  way 
prepared  for  changes  greater  still. 


Chapter    III 

THE    DUTCH    AND    ENGLISH    SETTLEMENTS 

1 5 80- 1 702 

THE  commerce  of  Portugal  was  almost  entirely  ruined,  and 
the  great  colony  of  Brazil  almost  lost,  by  the  results  of  one 
of  those  trifling  incidents  which  sometimes  change  the 
whole  course  of  human  affairs.  Sebastian,  the  son  of  John  HL,  fell 
in  an  expedition  against  the  Moors  in  1578.  Philip  H.  of  Spain 
declared  the  succession  at  an  end,  and  in  1580  reentered  on  Portugal 
as  a  fief  of  Spain.  For  sixty  years  Portugal,  with  its  colonies  and 
possessions,  remained  a  dependency  of  Spain;  and  as  the  aggres- 
sive and  intolerant  policy  of  Philip  had  made  him  an  enemy 
throughout  western  Europe,  the  Portuguese  dominions  were  sud- 
denly exposed  to  plunder  and  ruin.  Philip  preyed  upon  Portugal, 
and  his  enemies  fell  upon  her  ships  and  colonies.  Philip  engaged 
in  a  w^ar  against  the  liberty  and  religion  of  the  Netherland  provinces, 
which,  from  enjoying  a  high  degree  of  wealth  and  liberty  under 
the  House  of  Burgundy,  had  unhappily  fallen  under  his  tyranny. 
Seven  of  these  provinces  succeeded,  after  a  long  and  bloody  struggle, 
in  throwing  off  the  yoke.  The  United  Netherlands,  as  they  were 
called,  gave  promise  of  becoming  the  most  flourishing  community 
in  Europe;  but  Philip,  following  the  maxims  of  the  time,  forbade 
all  commerce  with  the  revolted  states.  Now  the  Dutch,  as  the 
United  Netherlanders,  by  the  appropriation  of  a  name  of  much 
wider  meaning,  came  to  be  called,  had  for  nearly  a  century  enjoyed 
a  great  share  of  the  most  profitable  trade  in  Europe.  They  carried 
the  produce  of  tlie  East  from  Lislion  to  their  own  country,  which 
la1:»or  and  skill,  working  upr>u  tlie  disacKantages  of  nature,  had 
con\-crted  into  one  vast  jxirl;  and  hence  tlicy  distril)uted  it  over 
all  Ruropc.  The  merchants  of  Antwerp,  ruined  in  Philip's  wars, 
migrated  to  Holland:  antl  the  Dutcli  ftnmd  themselves  enriclied 
by  all  their  misfortunes.  It  was  easy  to  foresee  the  consequences 
of  Philip's  revenge.  Unable  to  maintain  their  commerce  without 
the  produce  of  the  East,  the  Dutch  were  t'Mrced  into  the  East  to 
seek  it  t"or  tliemselves.  The  weakness  of  Spain  on  the  sea  had 
been  proved  by  the  fate  of  tlie  Invincible  Armada;  and  the  Dutch 


56  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

15S0-1702 

surmised  that  the  Portuguese,  cut  off  from  Europe,  would  make 
a  feeble  resistance.  In  September,  1595,  news  arrived  at  Goa  that 
four  Dutch  ships  bound  for  the  Sunda  Islands  had  touched  at  an 
Indian  port.  The  history  of  this  expedition  is  curious.  Cornelius 
Houtman,  a  Dutch  captain  in  the  Portuguese  service,  had  been 
taken  prisoner  by  the  floors.  The  Portuguese  Government  refused 
to  ransom  him,  and  he  thereupon  applied  to  some  merchants  of 
Amsterdam,  saying  that  if  they  would  pay  his  ransom  he  would 
show  them  the  way  to  the  East.  These  four  ships  were  freighted 
with  the  goods  of  Houtman's  friends,  and  the  venture  was  so  suc- 
cessful that  it  was  repeated.  There  was  soon  a  permanent  Dutch 
settlement  on  the  rich  island  of  Java.  Shortly  afterward  another 
was  made  on  that  of  Sumatra,  and  the  Dutch  quickly  made  the  best 
part  of  the  Eastern  trade  their  own.  The  arrogance  and  greed  of 
the  Portuguese  had  made  them  enemies  everywhere ;  their  colonial 
government  was  full  of  corruption  in  itself,  and  weakened  by  its 
isolation,  as  well  as  by  its  threefold  division,  and  the  discipline  of 
their  soldiers  was  gone.  The  Dutch,  on  the  other  hand,  were  a 
young  nation,  flushed  with  success  at  home,  and  eager  for  solid 
acquisitions  abroad.  They  had  acquired  great  comparative  wealth 
from  small  beginnings.  The  same  system  of  association  which 
still  subsists  in  their  home  fisheries  had  been  the  foundation  of 
their  enterprise.  Companies  for  mercantile  adventure  were  com- 
mon in  other  lands,  but  the  Dutch  exceeded  all  other  people  in  the 
success  with  which  they  managed  them,  and  many  such  were  already 
formed  for  absorbing  the  traffic  of  the  East  at  its  source.  The 
States-General,  in  1602,  consolidated  these  companies,  and  the 
famous  East  India  Company  was  formed.  It  was  the  turning-point 
in  the  commerce  of  Europe,  for  it  was  the  first  great  joint-stock 
company  whose  shares  were  bought  and  sold  from  hand  to  hand. 
It  prospered  exceedingly,  for  it  soon  paid  a  dividend  of  sixty  per 
cent.;  in  after  times  it  aided  the  state  at  important  conjunctures, 
and  supported  the  faih'ng  manufactures  of  Haarlem  and  Leyden. 
Throughout  the  East  the  Dutch,  spurred  by  the  necessity  of  supply- 
ing their  trade,  and  by  the  hope  of  confirming  tlieir  political  inde- 
pendence, soucclit  to  drive  the  Portuguese  from  their  positions,  and 
the  Asiatics  were  not  slow  to  help  them.  Philip,  as  had  been  sur- 
mised, cared  nothing  for  the  trade  of  the  PDrtuguese.  and  he  enlisted 
them  at  home  in  sc-ve  in  his  own  wars  in  Italy  and  Flanders.  And 
tiie  implacable  hostility  of  Philip  stimulated  the  progress  of  Dutch 


DUTCH     AND     ENGLISH  57 

1580-1702 

navigation,  and  drove  tlie  Dutch  more  and  more  into  the  Eastern 
trade.  He  seized  the  Dutch  ships,  and  fluni^  their  crews  into  the 
dungeons  of  the  Inquisition.  Hence  their  ships  became  daily  faster 
and  better  manned,  and  their  adventure  took  a  wider  scope. 

The  Dutch  soon  estal)hshed  a  connection,  though  subject  to 
great  restrictions,  both  w^ith  China  and  Japan,  but  their  main  object 
was  to  engross  the  trade  of  the  Moluccas.  These  they  completely 
conquered  in  1607.  The  inhabitants  allied  themselves  with  the 
newcomers  against  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  and  the  Dutch 
established  themselves  wherever  they  pleased.  One  by  one  the  forts 
of  the  Portuguese  fell  into  their  hands,  and  they  took  measures  to 
get  the  largest  possible  profit  out  of  their  new  possession.  And 
now  we  see  for  the  first  time  the  policy  of  a  mercantile  company 
having  a  monopoly.  Unable  to  occupy  all  the  soil  of  the  islands, 
they  fixed  themselves  where  the  best  soil  for  spices  was  thought 
to  be  found,  and  destroyed  the  spice-trees  elsewhere  as  far  as  they 
could,  so  as  to  keep  their  rivals  from  Europe  out  of  the  field.  When 
they  had  taken  a  certain  quantity  of  spices,  they  burned  the  rest, 
in  order,  as  they  su])pose(l,  to  keep  up  the  price.  They  cultivated 
the  clove  in  the  Island  of  Amboyna,  and  the  nutmeg  in  the  Banda 
Islands,  and  through  tlie  old  Portuguese  settlements  of  Timor  and 
Celebes  they  opened  a  trade  with  tb.e  Chinese.  Hie  growth,  how- 
ever, of  the  Dutch  colonies  in  the  East  was  slow,  because  they  did 
not  at  once  strike  a  blow  wherever  they  found  trade  going  on,  as 
the  Portuguese  did,  but  looked  narrowly  for  actual  commercial 
returns.  It  was  not  finally  secured  until  the  peace  of  1609,  in 
which  Spain  acknowled'.^ed  their  independence.  A  commercial 
center  was  now  wanting,  such  as  the  Portuguese  had  in  Goa,  and 
in  1618  they  seized  the  ca])ital  of  the  rich  island  of  Java,  upon  the 
ruins  of  which  they  founded  tlie  town  of  Batavia  as  the  future 
capital  of  the  Dutch  Indies.  The  site  of  Batavia  resembled  Holland, 
and  the  city  mav  still  be  called  an  Oriental  Amsterdam.  Batavia 
became  the  seat  of  the  goxernnicnt.  which  was  administered  by  a 
governor  general,  holding  oftlce  for  h\e  years,  and  assisted  by  a 
Council  of  the  Indies,  nominated  l.'v  the  company  at  home.  The 
success  of  the  Dutch  Compan}'  was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  its 
democratic  constitution.  Its  jjrofits  were  shared  by  the  merchants 
of  all  the  principal  Dutch  towns,  who  took  care  to  secure  for  its 
produce  a  sale  at  the  best  prices.  Mucli  of  it-;  success  must  also 
be  ascribed  to   its  abstinence    from  ali   ct..iV|ucsLs   wliicli   were  not 


58  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1580-1702 

commercially  profitable,  to  its  tolerance  of  Asiatic  customs,  and 
freedom  from  religions  fervor  which  marked  the  Portuguese.  Its 
decline  in  after  times  is  due  to  the  competition  of  the  French  and 
English,  who  brought  to  the  task  more  enterprise  and  sagacity,  and 
were  less  governed  by  merely  mercantile  principles. 

The  English  were  not  slow  to  follow  in  the  steps  of  the  Dutch. 
The  defeat  of  the  Armada  showed  them  their  power  at  sea,  and 
they  made  great  prizes  out  of  the  vessels  in  the  Eastern  trade.  In 
1592  the  Portuguese  Indiaman,  Mother  of  God,  of  1600  tons  burden, 
and  a  cargo  worth  150,000/.,  was  towed  into  Dartmouth.  She  was 
the  largest  vessel  ever  seen  in  England.  The  papers  of  these  prizes 
were  carefully  "scrutinized:  and  the  English  now  competed  with 
the  Dutch  in  beginning  an  Eastern  trade  of  their  own.  They  had 
always  been  considerable  traders,  though  England  formerly  pro- 
duced but  little  to  trade  in,  save  raw  materials.  The  produce  of 
England,  however,  steadily  increased  after  the  Wars  of  the  Roses; 
the  woolen  manufacture  sprang  into  being,  and  the  English  learned 
from  the  Italian  merchants,  who  had  long  been  settled  in  London, 
to  improve  their  vessels  and  to  carry  their  own  commodities  to 
the  ports  of  Europe.  In  the  olden  times  England  had  been  supplied 
with  Indian  produce  by  an  annual  ship  from  Venice.  They  traded 
to  Turkey  for  it  as  early  as  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  Frobisher 
tried  to  discover  a  northwest  passage  to  India.  Sir  Francis  Drake 
was  the  first  Englishman  to  sail  to  the  Indian  Archipelago  (1577- 
1580),  and  the  success  of  his  voyage  turned  the  attention  of  the 
English  strongly  to  the  East.  Tlie  Western  continent,  however, 
was  not  neglected.  Possession  was  taken,  in  the  name  of  the  whole, 
of  part  of  the  coast  of  North  America ;  companies  were  formed  on 
the  Dutch  model,  for  planting  them  with  English  settlers,  and, 
encouraged  by  the  weakness  of  Spain  on  the  ocean,  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  made  an  attempt  to  seize  on  what  he  believed  to  be  the 
rich  empire  of  Guiana.  But  Raleigh's  two  expeditions  to  Guiana 
ended  in  failure.  He  left  two  persons  with  a  friendly  tribe  of 
Indians  in  1595  to  serve  as  interpreters  upon  his  return,  but  made 
no  permanent  settlement.  The  Russian  Company  had  long  carried 
on  a  trade  with  Persia,  and  the  Turkish  Company  had  ventured 
to  send  their  cloths  by  way  of  Bagdad  to  Ormuz  and  Goa.  Even 
before  the  rout  of  the  Invincible  Armada  confirmed  to  Eng- 
land the  freedom  of  the  sea.  Englishmen  had  visited  the  courts 
of  Cambay  and  China  in  the  name  of  Oueen  Elizabeth.     When 


DUTCH     AND     ENGLISH  69 

1580-1702 

Spain  was  shown  to  be  too  weak  to  drive  them  off,  the  mer- 
chants of  London  were  not  slow  to  compete  with  those  of  Amster- 
dam for  the  commerce  which  was  shpping  from  the  grasp  of 
the  Portuguese,  and  on  the  last  day  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
first  East  India  Company  received  its  charter.  The  English 
adventurers  were  well  received  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  by 
all  except  their  European  rivals.  The  Portuguese  or  Dutch  were 
in  possession  of  the  most  advantageous  positions,  and  the  Eng- 
lish were  prepared  and  disposed  for  nothing  but  a  peaceful 
interposition.  But  the  growing  renown  and  riches  of  England, 
and  the  perseverance  of  the  English  Company,  excited  the  appre- 
hensions of  the  Dutch.  Open  violence  succeeded  to  rivalry,  but 
in  1 619  a  temporary  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  it  was  hoped 
that  the  avarice  of  the  Dutch  and  the  aspirations  of  the  English 
might  be  equally  satisfied.  The  Molucca  and  Banda  Islands  were 
to  belong  equally  to  the  two  companies,  and  the  produce  was  to 
be  divided  betv/een  them  in  tlie  proportion  of  one-third  for  the 
English,  and  two-thirds  for  the  Dutch.  A  handful  of  English, 
therefore,  settled  in  Amboyna;  but  tlie  presence  of  these  rivals 
became  insupportable  to  the  Dutch  planters.  They  suborned  some 
Japanese  who  were  in  their  service  to  accuse  the  English  of  a  con- 
spiracy to  seize  the  fort.  .Several  of  these  unfortunate  adventurers 
were  imprisoned  and  killed,  and  the  rest  were  driven  from  the 
island  in  1623.  The  English  gave  up  the  spice  trade,  though  they 
kept  up  their  intercourse  with  the  .Vsiatic  continent ;  and  the  "  massa- 
cre of  Amboyna,"  as  it  was  called,  long  served  to  keep  uj)  a  strong 
animosity  between  the  two  nations. 

The  rich  and  rising  colony  of  Brazil  had  already  attracted  the 
cupidity  of  the  French,  and  the  sugar  plantations  had  flourished 
greatly  since  the  importation  of  negro  labor  from  the  Portuguese 
.settlements  in  Africa.  TIic  Dutch,  made  bold  by  their  great  suc- 
cesses in  the  East,  novv'  sought  to  win  the  trade  of  Brazil  by  force 
of  arms,  and  the  success  of  the  I  ■last  India  Company  encouraged 
the  adventurers  who  subscribed  the  funds  for  that  of  the  West 
Indies,  incorporated  in  1621.  The  Dutch  admiral  Jacob  Willekens 
successfully  assaulted  San  Salvador  in  1624,  and  though  the  capital 
was  afterward  retaken  by  the  intrepid  Archbishop  Texeira,  one-half 
of  the  coast  of  Brazil  submitted  to  the  Dutch.  Here,  as  in  the  East, 
ihe  profit  of  the  company  was  the  whole  aim  of  the  Dutch,  and  the 
spirit  in  which  they  executed  their  design  was  a  main  cause  of  its 


60  COLONIES     OF     T  H  E     \Y  O  R  L  D 

1580-1702 

failure.  The  company,  for  instance,  kept  the  trade  in  provisions 
in  its  own  hands;  and,  in  consequence,  no  native  of  Pernambuco 
was  allowed  to  kill  a  sheep  either  for  sale  or  for  his  own  consump- 
tion; he  was  obliged  to  sell  it  to  the  Dutch  butchers,  and  buy  the 
meat  of  them  at  a  price  fixed  by  the  company.  This  was  not  the 
way  to  win  the  Brazilians,  but  it  increased  the  profits  of  the  com- 
pany, which  rose  at  one  time  to  cent,  per  cent.  The  visions  of 
the  speculators  of  Amsterdam  became  greater,  and  they  resolved 
to  become  masters  of  all  Brazil.  This  accomplished,  Peru  and 
Mexico  might  perhaps  in  time  have  submitted  to  them,  and  the 
Dutch  republic  would  have  given  laws  to  the  New  World.  The 
man  whom  they  dispatched  to  execute  this  design  was  Prince  John 
Maurice  of  Nassau.  He  belonged  to  a  family  wliicli  has  been 
famous  for  its  statesmen,  and  it  is  likely  that  he  might  really  have 
accomplished  this  design,  ambitious  as  it  v/as,  for  in  a  short  time 
he  had  greatly  extended  the  Dutch  possessions.  But,  the  stad- 
houder  was  subject,  not  to  the  wise  and  learned  men  who  sat  in 
the  States-General,  but  to  the  merchants  who  composed  the  courts 
of  the  company.  They  thought  of  nothing  but  their  dividends; 
they  considered  that  Maurice  kept  up  more  troops  and  built  more 
fortresses  than  were  necessary  for  a  mercantile  community,  and 
that  he  lived  in  too  princely  a  fashion  for  one  in  their  service. 
Perhaps  they  suspected  him  of  an  intention  of  slipping  into  that 
royal  dignity  which  the  feudal  frame  of  Brazilian  society  seemed 
to  offer  him.  At  any  rate,  in  1643,  they  forced  him  to  resign.  A 
recent  revolution  had  terminated  the  subjection  of  Portugal  to 
Spain,  and  the  new  King  of  Portugal  concluded  a  truce  for  ten 
years  with  Holland.  W'ar  was  therefore  supposed  to  be  out  of 
the  question,  and  the  company  had  some  pretext  for  withdrawing 
the  expenses  of  Maurice's  government.  The  troops  were  reduced, 
there  v.-as  no  stad-houder's  court,  no  new  fortifications;  the  trade 
of  the  colony  flourished  as  well,  and  the  profits  of  the  company 
were  greater  than  ever.  But  the  recall  of  Maurice  was  the  signal 
for  an  independent  revolt  in  Brazil.  Though  the  mother  countries 
were  at  peace,  war  broke  out  between  tb.e  Dutch  and  the  Portuguese 
of  Brazil,  in  1645.  The  Jesuits  had  long  preached  a  crusade 
against  the  heretic  Dutch.  The  House  of  Braganza  was  once  more 
on  the  throne  at  Lisbon,  and,  in  spite  of  the  truce  with  Holland, 
the  Brazilians  were  determined  to  regain  their  independence,  like 
the  mother-country.     Since  the  conclusion  of  the  truce,  the  Dutch 


DUTCH     AND     ENGLISH  61 

1580-1702 

had  possessed  themselves  of  several  Portuguese  settlements  in  Africa 
and  Asia,  which  they  refused  to  surrender,  and  the  King  of  Portu- 
gal was  not  disposed  to  check  the  impulse  to  independence  in  Brazil. 
John  Ferdinand  de  Vieyra,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  Pernambuco,  led 
a  general  uprising  of  the  Brazilians,  and  although  the  Dutch  made 
a  stubborn  resistance,  they  received  no  assistance  from  home;  they 
were  driven  from  one  post  after  another,  until  in  1654,  the  last 
of  the  company's  servants  quitted  Brazil.  The  Dutch  declared  war 
against  Portugal;  but  in  1661  peace  was  made,  and  the  Dutch  sold 
their  claims  for  8,000,000  florins,  the  right  of  trading  being  secured 
to  them.  But  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch,  the  trade  of  Brazil 
came  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  It  was  carried 
on  in  the  same  way  as  the  trade  of  Old  and  New  Spain,  by  armed 
fleets  dispatched  to  each  of  the  principal  ports,  Pernambuco,  San 
Salvador,  and  Rio  Janeiro,  and  the  produce  of  Brazil  was  shipped 
back  to  Lisbon;  but  the  woolen  goods,  metals,  and  provisions  of 
England  formed  the  bulk  of  the  exports,  and  the  Lisbon  merchants 
chiefly  traded  upon  credit  from  the  English  merchants  whose  goods 
they  exported.  Hence  Portugal  was  rightly  looked  upon  in  Europe 
as  only  a  factor  or  agent  of  England. 

The  steady  progress  of  the  Dutch  in  the  East  answers  exactly 
to  the  advance  of  Holland  among  the  countries  of  Europe ;  and  this 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  political  fact  of  the  century.  Rest- 
ing always  on  the  solid  basis  of  the  spice  trade,  the  East  India 
Company  planted  its  settlements  on  all  the  shores  between  Europe 
and  Batavia.  They  drove  the  Portuguese  from  their  factory  at 
^Malacca  in  1640;  they  allied  themselves  with  the  native  princes  of 
Ceylon,  and  drove  the  Portuguese  from  Colombo  in  1658,  and  they 
vastiv  extended  tlieir  liold  on  India.  Since  161 5  they  had  ac- 
{|uired  settlements  at  I':iliokatri  and  other  places  on  the  Coro- 
mandcl  coast,  hut  Xega])atam  l)ecame  their  chief  mart  from  1658. 
On  the  .Mala])ar  coast,  tl:e  a.iicicnt  ina.ris  of  Calicut,  Cochin,  and 
Cananor  were  taken  from  tlu  rortu<4-ucse  in  succession.  By  this 
it-  was  hoped  that  the  whole  o,f  the  {icpjjcr  trade  would  fall  into 
tlicir  liand'^;  but  it  was  n* 't  ...^y  to  exclude  the  rest  of  Europe 
from  the  commerce  of  a  coast  now  so  easily  reached.  Accustomed 
to  tlie  cnornious  profits  of  their  spice  monopoly,  the  Dutch  cared 
Init  little  for  tlieir  Malabar  sttHcmcnts.  They  coukl  not.  however, 
afford  to  al)andon  l!ie  trado  <^f  India  \o  the  English  and  French, 
whi.;  were  rajjiillx'  takin.i';  it  up.  aaul  their  factories  were  sprea^j  all 


62  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1580-1702 

over  the  coasts  as  far  as  Bengal.  But  the  most  important  in  the 
end  among  all  the  Dutch  settlements  was  made  upon  a  spot  which 
during  a  century  and  a  half  had  invited  the  attention  of  Europe 
in  vain.  Their  commerce  with  the  East  now  greatly  exceeded  that 
which  had  been  carried  on  by  the  Portuguese;  it  was  threatened 
by  other  European  rivals,  and  it  was  pointed  out  in  1650,  by  Van 
Riebeck,  a  ship's  surgeon,  that  the  foundation  of  an  agricultural 
colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  the  Portuguese  and 
Dutch  vessels  had  often  halted,  would  be  at  once  a  strategical  sup- 
port to  the  commerce  of  Lidia,  and  a  convenient  halting-place  for 
the  Dutch  ships.  He  was  entrusted  with  the  formation  of  a 
colony.  The  company  allowed  about  one  square  league  of  land 
to  each  emigrant,  keeping  the  freehold  for  themselves;  they  fur- 
nished them  with  farming  stock,  and  their  cattle  quickly  multiplied. 
The  Cape  Colony  soon  produced  provisions,  corn,  and  wine  in 
abundance;  natives  of  other  countries  were  encouraged  to  settle, 
as  had  long  been  the  case  in  the  mother-country;  but  all  remained 
subject  to  the  exclusive  system  to  which  they  owed  their  begin- 
nings. No  communication  was  allowed  with  the  ships  of  any 
other  country,  nor  were  the  colonists  permitted  to  sail  for  them- 
selves to  the  bordering  shores  in  search  of  the  fuel  which  the 
rocks  of  the  Cape  scarcely  supplied.  They  obtained  labor  by 
kidnaping  the  natives,  and  by  bringing  negroes  from  Guinea  and 
Malays  fi'om  Java.  The  Colony  formed  part  of  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Indies  at  Batavia,  which  was  divided  into  six  govern- 
ments, Java,  Amboyna,  Ternat,  Ceylon,  Macassar,  and  the  Cape. 
The  London  East  India  Company  continued  to  prosper  and 
to  extend  its  operations.  Its  annual  ventures  brought  returns  of 
from  one  to  two  hundred  per  cent.  It  loaded  its  large  vessels 
chiefly  with  bullion,  which  was  collected  in  foreign  parts,  for  the 
export  of  English  coin  was  forljidden ;  the  rest  of  the  cargo  con- 
sisted of  English  raw  and  manufactured  produce.  ]\Iany  foolish 
objections  were  seriously  raised  against  it,  namely,  that  by  ex- 
porting the  treasure  which  would  otherwise  have  poured  into  the 
kingdom,  it  impoverished  the  state,  that  it  caused  the  destruction 
of  timber  by  the  building  of  great  ships,  and  that  it  engrossed 
the  skilled  mariners  of  the  realm.  About  the  year  when  tlie  com- 
pany obtained  their  great  factory  of  Madras  (1640)  their  con- 
cerns were  -  >  large  tliat  ihc'w  (Ir)rkvard  at  DeiViford  was  unequal 
t<>   them:   thc}'  '.'"'crefore  1)()Uglit  sonic  ground   in  a  niarsli  called 


DUTCH     AND     EXGLISH  63 

1580-1702 

Blackwall,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  made  a  new  dock- 
yard there.  The  company  built  their  own  ships,  and  made  their 
own  masts,  yards,  sails,  and  cordage;  they  did  everything  nec- 
essary for  victualing  and  appointing  them,  down  to  making  their 
own  casks,  and  baking  their  own  bread,  and  grinding  their  own 
gunpowder;  so  tliat  they  enjoyed  profits  which  have  since  been 
divided  among  several  trades.  They  now,  however,  had  so  much 
business  that  besides  tlie  great  sliips  of  looo  tons  and  upward 
which  they  built,  they  were  obliged  to  hire  others  upon  freight. 
They  grew  so  rich  that  William  III.,  following  the  Dutch  method, 
laid  a  duty  of  five  per  cent,  upon  their  stock.  In  1698  a  second 
company,  called  the  "  English "  Company,  was  chartered ;  but 
this  produced  so  great  a  commotion  that  the  two  were  consoli- 
dated in  1702  by  the  name  of  the  United  Company  of  Alerchants 
Trading  to  the  East  Indies.  The  English  Company  brought  into 
the  concern  five  times  the  amount  of  the  original  stock  of  the 
London  Company.  The  London  Company  had  already  begun 
to  feel  the  effect  of  the  more  liberal  constitution  of  the  Dutch 
Company,  and  some  such  enlargement  of  its  basis  was  necessary 
to  enable  it  to  go  on  competing  with  the  latter. 

The  rivalry  of  the  Dutch  and  English  was  not  yet  confined 
to  the  East.  We  ha\e  seen  how  John  Cabot  discovered  Xewfound- 
land  within  a  few  years  of  the  discovery  of  the  new  continent, 
and  how  the  great  fishery  of  Xewfoundland  was  established. 
The  English  made  continual  \oyages  to  these  coasts,  and  gave 
out  at  home  that  there  was  gold  to  be  had  for  the  seeking:  but 
the  few  attempts  which  were  made  proved  failures.  The  Dutch, 
on  the  other  hand,  confined  themselves  chiefly  to  the  East.  It  was 
thought  that  an  luigl isli  cf^lony  in  North  America  might  serve  as 
a  naval  outpost  against  Spain,  as  a  stimulus  to  the  trade  of  Eng- 
land, and  in  the  end  as  a  source  of  the  much-coveted  gold ;  and 
this  was  finallv  effected  in  1607.  by  means  of  two  joint-stock  com- 
])anies  formed  on  the  Dutch  model.  Through  the  London  and 
Plymouth  Companies  tlicre  began  a  great  influx  of  colonists  to 
ax'oid  tlie  religious  jjcrsecuiions  of  Ciiarles  I.  The  histivry  of  this 
great  series  of  coU)nies  is  the  preliminary  history  of  the  Lnited 
States.  England  did  not  remain  peaceably  in  possession  of  :iH 
the  northern  part  of  the  contincni.  The  Erench  took  possession 
of  the  St.  La\\rcnce  in  i^'m^^.  and  foundetl  tlie  town  of  Ouebcc. 
and  in   iTioj  llndstm,  ilie   lviigii>li  navigaUn-,  when  in  the  service 


61  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1580-1702 

of  the  Dutch,  had  explored  the  banks  of  the  river  which  now 
bears  his  name.  The  country  really  formed  part  of  the  great 
English  territory  which  was  called  Virginia;  but  James  L,  who 
cared  nothing  for  colonies,  made  only  a  show  of  opposition  to 
the  claims  of  the  Netherlands,  and  it  was  instantly  granted  out 
by  the  Dutch  Government  to  the  West  India  Company.  The 
company  built  the  fort  of  Orange,  about  150  miles  up  the  river, 
as  a  market  for  the  fur  trade,  and  the  traffic  with  the  Indians  on 
the  river  was  the  richest  in  all  North  America.  But  the  New 
Netherlands  as  it  was  called  was  destined  to  be  something  more 
than  an  emporium  for  the  trade  of  the  Five  Nations;  and  the  cor- 
poration of  Amsterdam  bought  up  the  rights  of  the  company,  and 
settled  the  town  of  New  Amsterdam  on  Manhattan  Island,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson,  the  best  harbor  on  the  whole  coast.  The 
Dutch  settlement  became  so  flourishing  that  Charles  II.  resolved 
to  conquer  it,  which  he  did  in  1664.  The  country  was  granted 
to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterward  James 
II.,  and  the  names  of  York  and  Albany  were  substituted  fi^r  those 
of  New  Amsterdam  and  New  Orange.  In  the  subsequent  war 
(1672-1674)  between  England  and  Holland  tlie  Dutch  retook 
New  York ;  but  it  was  restored  to  England  by  tlie  Peace  of  Nym- 
wegen,  and  the  Dutch  had  to  content  themselves  with  a  part  of 
British  Guiana,  which  was  ceded  to  them  in  exchange.  In  the 
meantime  the  English  colonies  to  which  New  York  was  necessary 
as  a  commercial  center  had  grown  up  one  by  one,  until  the  whole 
coast  from  the  Floridas  northward  was  occupied  by  settlers,  as  the 
Brazil  coast  had  been  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  a  century  before. 
We  see  from  all  this  that  a  new  element  of  great  importance 
to  Europe  was  steadily  growing  up  in  the  colonies.  It  was  from 
the  colonies  that  Holland  and  England  drew  the  wealth  and  the 
influence  that  enabled  them  over  and  over  to  defeat  the  designs 
of  Spain  and  France.  These  states  first  made  colonial  commerce 
profitable,  like  that  which  they  carried  on  at  home,  by  making 
it  comparatively  free,  and  by  admitting  the  principle  of  peaceful 
competition,  and  they  found  out  how  to  nourish  it  v/itli  plenty 
of  capital  by  the  system  of  companies.  The  French,  or  rather 
the  people  of  Normandy  and  Brittany,  followed  their  ex- 
ample; and  the  system  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  though  its  main 
lines  were  allowed  to  stand  untouched,  soon  showed  a  disadvan- 
tageous contrast  with  tliat  of  the  free  commercial  nations.     Dur- 


DUTCH     AND     ENGLISH  65 

1580-1702 

ing  the  period  we  have  described,  the  Dutch  became  the  first  nation 
in  Europe.  In  the  space  of  half  a  century,  from  having  no  ocean- 
going ships  at  all,  they  came  to  have  more  than  all  the  rest  of 
Europe  put  together.  In  1672  they  were  strong  enough  to  defy 
the  united  force  of  England  and  France.  They  surpassed  all  the 
rest  in  art,  learning,  and  manufactures;  and  both  there  and  in  Eng- 
land the  whole  national  life  was  animated  by  the  impulse  of  com- 
mercial enterprise.  It  was  a  movement  which  proceeded  from  the 
merchants  of  the  large  towns,  and  to  which  the  government  of 
neither  country  contributed  in  the  first  instance  anything  more 
than  bare  countenance.  It  led,  however,  in  both  cases,  to  the 
predominance  of  commercial  principles  in  the  national  policy, 
and  through  this  to  a  substantial  national  greatness  unknown  to 
the  feudal  monarchies  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  Dutch  led 
the  way,  as  they  did  in  the  changes  in  government  at  home.  Their 
best  statesmen,  such  as  the  great  John  de  Witt,  steadily  advocated 
colonial  enterprise.  The  Dutch  seldom  failed  in  their  undertak- 
ings; but  the  English  everywhere  followed  and  outstripped  them. 
The  Dutch  first  made  the  general  interest  of  the  commum'ty  the 
ground  of  their  policy,  and  tlie  community  permanently  profited 
by  the  results.  The  Dutch  did  not,  like  the  English  in  after  times, 
form  agricultural  colonies  by  sending  out  large  numbers  of  poor 
or  persecuted  colonists  from  luune,  because  in  Holland  there  was 
neither  poverty  nor  persecution;  their  religious  toleration  com- 
bined with  economical  principles  to  prevent  them  from  setting  up 
exclusive  religious  establishments,  such  as  consumed  much  of  the 
wealth  of  the  I'orttiguese  and  Spanish  colonies,  and  in  this  respect 
their  example  was  in  general  wisely  followed  by  the  English. 
Capital  was  expected  to  funn'sli  ;i  due  return :  and  as  the  policy  of 
the  conii^anies  who  shared  tiie  trade  i>i  the  East  did  not  admit  of 
its  unlimited  applicati<,>n.  :i  new  n>rni  i^'i  its  employment  was  found 
out.  Neither  mining,  agricultur.'d,  nor  trading  settlements,  sticli 
as  we  have  hitherto  had  in  question,  were  to  form  the  main  body 
of  what  Europe  for  many  yc;irs  regarded  as  its  most  valuable 
possessions.  It  wis  ftiund  tliat  many  of  the  prv)ductions  of  the 
East,  and  some  wliich  tlie  East  did  not  afford,  could  be  cultivated 
to  advantage  nearer  home:  and  for  nearly  two  centuries  much  of 
the  enterprise  of  Europe  streamed  t(j  the  West  Indies,  utterly 
neglected  or  niisnianat^'eil  b}'  SiKiin.  where  each  natioin  seized  upon 
po<sc-,-!on-i  ot  it<  i'\\\i.      Tlin-  we  .'"nie  lo  the  "  l'Ia'.r,:itii  >ns.'' 


Chapter    IV 

THE    PLANTATIONS.     1600-1775 

TOGETHER  with  the  mainland  of  America  the  Span- 
iards claimed  all  the  West  India  Islands.  These,  indeed, 
had  been  the  first  discovery  of  their  navigators,  and  upon 
them  they  had  made  their  earliest  settlements.  But  the  gold  and 
silver  which  they  afforded  was  now  exhausted,  and  the  Spaniards 
cared  for  little  else.  They  did,  indeed,  draw  from  them  a  supply 
of  hides,  tallow,  and  provisions,  and  in  the  course  of  time  they 
raised  from  them  small  quantities  of  cocoa  and  indigo;  but  the 
Spanish  planters  had  neither  the  genius  to  see  the  wonderful  ca- 
pacities of  the  soil,  nor  the  industry  and  the  enterprise  necessary  to 
bring  them  into  effect.  In  their  hands,  these  beautiful  and  fertile 
islands,  which  afterward  became  the  very  garden  of  the  world, 
were  utterly  neglected,  and  it  was  not  wonderful  that  other  nations 
should  seek  to  dispossess  them,  as  soon  as  the  proved  weakness 
of  Spain  at  sea  showed  that  this  could  be  attempted  with  safety. 
The  way  for  this  was  paved  by  the  situation  of  tlie  islands  on  the 
route  to  Mexico  and  Peru.  To  their  countless  coves  and  thick 
covers  smugglers  and  pirates  of  all  nations  resorted  to  lie  in  wait 
for  the  Spanish  galleons,  and  to  carry  on  a  contraband  trade;  and 
the  English,  Dutch,  and  French  soon  became  better  acquainted 
with  their  geography  than  the  Spaniards  themselves.  From  the 
map  we  see  that  they  lie  in  distinct  groups.  There  are  the  four 
Great  Antilles.  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo,  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Rico; 
the  Lesser  Antilles,  comprising  tlie  Leeward  Islands,  a  continuation 
of  the  Greater  Antilles,  including  the  Virgin  Islands,  St.  Christo- 
pher and  Xevis.  and  all  the  islands  as  far  as  ^lartinique,  and  the 
Windward  Islands,  so  called  from  their  facing  the  east,  from  Santa 
Lucia  southward,  and  all  now  belonging  to  England ;  and  Curacao, 
Bonaire,  and  Aruba,  sometimes  known  as  the  Little  Antilles,  form- 
erly called  tlic  Leeward  Islands,  belonging  to  Holland,  and  lying 
off  the  coa-t  of  Venezuela.  The  Bahamas,  nortli  of  Cuba,  have 
but  little  t(j  C\i)  with  the  West   !n(lie>.      ('){  tliese   islands  only  the 


T  HE     PLAN  T  A  T  I  O  N  S 


67 


1600-1775 


Greater  Antilles  were  thought  by  tlie  Spaniards  worth  occupying: 
but  they  were  resolved  to  keep  the  adventurers  of  other  nations 
from  settling  in  the  others.  This  was  impossible;  the  English 
and  Dutch  were  better  seamen,  and  as  fast  as  the  Spanish  cap- 
tains dislodged  them  from  one  place,  they  fixed  themselves  in 
another;  and  many  small  colonies  were  formed  before  any  en- 
croachments on  the  rights  of  Spain  were  sanctioned  by  any  Euro- 
pean power.  Most  of  the  small  islands  were  inhabited  by  a  fierce 
race  of  cannibals,  who  were  the  terror  of  the  gentler  Indians  of  the 
Greater  Antilles.     If  the  Spaniards  had  thought  the  natives  worth 


WEST  INDIES 


0     C    B     A     ^ 


3    B     £    ^      N         5 


J 


i:2_ 


conquering,  it  \voul(l  lia\"e  been  a  hard  task,  and  the  smugglers 
and  pirates  themsel\cs  generally  souglit  out  a  deserted  island  for 
tlicir  retreat.  In  tliis  wav  tlic  island  of  I'arlxados.  whicli  lay  in  the 
way  of  sln'ps  l)ound  for  (hiiaua  and  I'razil,  was  occupied  l)y  the  Eng- 
lisli  shortly  after  tlie  dcatli  of  I'^lizabcth.  It  was  a  desolate  and 
unpeopled  spot.  11ie  Englisli  discerned  the  advantages  of  the 
soil  and  climate;  and  its  defensibility  (being  fortified  bv  nature  on 
two  out  of  its  three  sides)  and  its  retuf^tcness  from  the  route  of 
the  Spanish  ciuarda-coslas  encouraged  tlieir  first  attempts  at  plant- 
ing it  with  C(Ttton,  to1)acc(\  and  iudigo.  Sugnr.  the  great  staple 
of  the   jilantations.    was  not    as  A'ct   introduced:   but   the   industrv 


68  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1775 

of  the  planters  prepared  the  way  for  its  success.  An  accidental 
circumstance  gave  rise  to  a  double  occupation  of  St.  Christopher, 
one  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  In  1625  D'Esnambuc,  a  French 
privateer  of  Dieppe,  had  been  worsted  in  an  encounter  with  a  Span- 
ish galleon,  and  putting  into  the  island  to  refit,  found  there  a  con- 
siderable number  of  his  countrymen.  He  was  so  struck  with  its 
capabilities,  that  on  his  return  he  obtained  from  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu a  charter  incorporating  a  French  West  India  Company.  Re- 
turning to  the  islands,  he  made  other  settlements  on  Alartinique 
and  Guadaloupe,  in  the  Windward  Islands.  About  the  same  time 
Thomas  Warner,  an  Englishman,  formed  a  settlement  in  similar 
circumstances  on  the  south  side  of  St.  Christopher.  The  Span- 
iards drove  out  the  settlers  of  both  nations  in  1630;  but  they  soon 
returned,  though  many  of  the  French  settlers  migrated  to  the  more 
promising  colonies  of  the  Windward  Islands.  Thus  were  formed 
the  first  English  and  French  settlements  in  the  West  Indies,  which 
afterward  contributed  so  much  to  the  wealth  of  the  mother  coun- 
tries, and  to  the  formation  of  their  general  colonial  policy.  All 
the  Greater  Antilles  were  still  in  the  possession  of  Spain. 

The  name  buccaneers  was  usually  given  during  the  seventeenth 
century  to  the  French,  English,  and  Dutch  adventurers  who  flocked 
to  the  West  Indies  to  prey  upon  the  Spanish  fleets  and  colonies. 
The  Dutch  were  chiefly  smugglers;  the  English  and  French 
chiefly  pirates.  Many  of  them  began  as  planters,  but  they  found 
piracy  a  more  congenial  and  gainful  pursuit.  Thousands  of  ad- 
venturous men,  with  swift  and  well-found  ships,  swept  the  seas  in 
search  of  pkuider,  landing  now  and  then  to  burn  a  Spanish  town, 
or  to  hunt  wild  cattle,  whose  flesh  they  smoked  over  their  boucanes 
or  wood  fires:  hence  the}'  were  called  buccaneers.  Their  swift 
ships  were  called  in  Dutcli  z'Uchootcn,  or  flying-b(xits :  and  hence 
llie  name  of  freebooters  or  fihhmsters.  The  recorded  exploits  of 
these  marauders  fill  large  volumes.  They  greatly  increased  in 
strength  and  numbers  as  the  permanent  settlements  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  I'Tench  increased  in  the  latter  half  of  the  centuiy ;  and  it  is 
calculated  that  if  they  had  acted  upon  a  uniform  plan,  with  a 
better  discipline,  and  under  a  leader  of  genius,  they  might  without 
difncuky  have  conquered  all  the  Americas.  They  liarassed  all  the 
shores  of  Xew  .Spain;  tliev  passed  the  Sira.its  of  jd'agelirm,  and 
sjjread  t!ie  teri-ir;  la'  llicir  naiine  as  far  as  California.  \'aai  1  [orn, 
at  the  lie-ad  of   1 5<-to   l)ulcii   and   k'rench,  to<jk    \'era  Cru/.  in    Hx*^.) 


TIIK     PLANTATIONS  69 

1600-1775 

under  the  guns  of  the  Spanish  Heet;  Morgan,  a  Welshman,  who 
was  afterward  Governor  of  Jamaica,  took  Porto  Bello  and 
Panama;  and  the  names  of  Grammont,  Lolonois,  and  Dampier 
were  long  words  of  fear  on  all  the  Spanish  coasts.  In  time  of  war 
the  European  governments  encouraged  them ;  indeed,  for  half  a 
centur}'  and  more  they  carried  out  the  dclihcrate  policy  of  the 
European  governments.  Privateering  was  reckoned  a  regular 
husiness,  like  planting;  and  tlie  governmeiUs  received  tenths  and 
fifteenths  of  the  booty  as  the  juiblic  sliare.  And  after  1670,  when 
Spain  ceased  to  assert  an  exclusive  claim  to  the  West  Indies,  there 
was  much  ado  to  induce  them  to  give  up  piracy  and  turn  planters. 
The  buccaneers  were  tempted  with  grants  of  land;  but  the  home 
governments  were  in  the  end  driven  to  repress  them  by  force  of 
arms.  Many  fruitless  expeditions  were  sent  out  for  their  reduc- 
tion, and  the  privateers  who  were  licensed  to  cruise  against  them 
often  ended  by  joining  them.  West  Indian  piracy  was  only  slowly 
extinguished.  One  of  the  last  of  the  English  ])irates.  Captain 
Kidd,  was  hanged  on  the  shore  of  the  Thames  in  1701  :  but  tlie 
exploits  of  the  filibuster  (}cncral  ^\^'llker,  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tur}^  show  that  freeijooting  will  exist  as  long  as  the  temptations 
which  excite  it  are  stronger  tlian  the  power  which  should  put  it 
down.  The  chief  trace  which  the  buccaneers  have  left  on  history 
is  the  French  colony  in  the  western  part  of  Santo  Domingo  and  the 
little  neighboring  island  of  Tortuga.  This  was  originally  a  buc- 
caneer settlement,  which  gnulually  formed  a  rude  pirate-like  con- 
stitution and  code  of  laws.  The  inliabitants  were  chietly  of  French 
descent,  and  the  French  Government  took  them  under  its  protec- 
tion in  1C65.  Other  pirate-like  scUlcnients  were  formed  by  the 
Maroons,  as  the  runav/ay  ncgr(jcs  of  tlie  West  Indies  were  called. 
These  often  collected  in  grc:it  numbers,  and  formed  a  rude  kind 
oi  community  whicli  dclied  th.e  attacks  oT  the  wliites.  A  colony  of 
Mar(K)ns  cslablislied  in  tlio  center  of  Jamaica  resisted  all  the  at- 
tacks of  tlie  planters,  anfl  was  at  last  allowed  to  exist  in  peace; 
there  was  another  faniotts  one  in  ]>razil,  and  the  Maroons  of  St. 
\'incent  were  ultimately  taken  under  t!ie  ])rotection  of  tlie  French 
and  made  a  regular  colony. 

'I"he  sugar  cane  liad  been  successfully  cultivated  for  two  cen- 
turies by  the  Portuguese,  wlio  learned  its  use  from  the  \'enetiaii>. 
Brazil  became  tlie  chief  s(mrce  of  the  supply,  and  the  demand  in 
Etirope  was  so  great  tliat  tlie  sugar  trade  sjieedily  became  the  most 


70  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1775 

profitable  one  in  which  capital  could  be  engaged.  The  Dutch,  who 
had  long  carried  this  precious  article  from  Lisbon  to  all  the  ports 
of  Europe,  made  their  famous  and  daring  invasion  of  Brazil  en- 
tirely for  the  sake  of  sugar;  and  they  greatly  extended  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  cane  after  tlie  Brazilian  coast  came  into  their  possession. 
The  cane  flourished  in  Barbados,  but  the  English  planters  knew 
no  other  use  for  it  tlian  to  brew  a  refreshing  drink  for  that  hot 
climate  until  1640,  when  a  Dutchman  from  Brazil  landed  in  the 
island,  and  taught  them  the  secret  of  ripening  the  cane,  which  was 
by  letting  it  grow  fifteen  months  instead  of  twelve,  and  of  boiling 
the  juice.  In  a  few  years  Barbados  became  prodigiously  pros- 
perous by  the  introduction  of  the  sugar  trade.  The  whole  of  the 
leeward  coasts  of  this  island  were  soon  covered  with  plantations 
and  in  twenty  years  50,000  English  settled  there.  The  civil  wars 
in  England  increased  the  number  of  the  planters,  who,  like  those  of 
Brazil,  were  chiefly  men  of  wealth.  The  growth  of  Barbados 
went  on  fast  from  1640  to  1650.  It  had  a  free  trade  with  the 
Dutch  and  Portuguese ;  an  independent  constitution,  though  nom- 
inally the  fief  of  a  proprietary  grantee;  and  as  most  of  the  planters 
were  cavaliers,  they  resisted  what  they  thought  to  be  the  usurpa- 
tion of  the  Parliament.  They  called  the  island  ''  Little  England.*' 
and  in  the  planters  of  Barbados  we  certainly  find  the  earliest  type 
of  the  true  English  colonist.  They  were,  however,  reduced  to 
submission  by  Cromwell,  and  his  Act  of  Navigation  forced  them  to 
give  up  all  trade  except  with  the  mother  country.  Cromwell  did  a 
great  deal  for  the  \\'est  Indies  by  sending  many  of  his  Irish  and 
Scotch  prisoners  out  thither  as  slaves.  Seven  thousand  Scotch,  for 
example,  were  sold  to  the  West  Indian  planters  after  the  battle  of 
Worcester.  The  same  thing  was  done  in  1716  after  the  rebellion 
of  the  Pretender.  Before  the  combined  effect  of  the  Act  of  Navi- 
gation, tlie  growth  of  tl:e  I'Tench  plantations,  and  the  rivalry  of 
Jamaica,  Barbados  was  the  most  populous,  rich,  and  industrious 
.spot  on  the  eartli.  In  1657,  14.000/.  was  reckoned  the  smallest 
capital  with  which  a  planter  could  settle  upon  an  estate  of  500 
acres;  but  this  sum  easilv  yielded  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  every 
year.  The  continual  hostility  of  the  Spaniards  to  all  other  Euro- 
peans in  tlie  West  Indie?,  and  the  relentless  cruelty  which  accom- 
panied it,  together  with  the  enormous  advantage  which  England 
might  obviously  reap  fr<im  extending  her  pcjssessious,  made  Crom- 
well resolve  upon  a  bold  stroke,  which  v;as  worthy  of  his  states- 


T  HE     PLAN  T  A  T  I  O  N  S  71 

1600-1775 

manship.  This  was  the  conquest  of  the  magnificent  island  of  Santo 
Domingo,  the  most  valuable  of  the  Greater  Antilles;  and  he  sent 
out  for  this  purpose  in  1655  an  expedition  of  10,000  men,  under 
Admiral  Penn  and  General  Venables.  ]\Iost  of  it  was  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Spaniards,  though  the  French  buccaneers  had  settlements 
in  the  west  of  the  island.  The  English  were  repulsed  by  the  Span- 
iards; but,  unwilling  to  return  to  England  without  some  glory, 
they  attacked  the  neighboring  island  of  Jamaica  before  its  in- 
habitants had  heard  the  news  of  their  defeat.  J^niaica  was  at  this 
time  in  a  poor  condition.  The  Spaniards  had  lost  all  their  labor 
by  their  cruel  treatment  of  the  natives ;  they  had  taken  those  of 
the  Bahama  Islands,  but  these  were  also  exhausted ;  they  were  too 
idle  and  proud  to  work  themselves,  and  too  poor  to  buy  negroes. 
The  English  took  it;  and  in  a  hundred  years  it  became  one  of  the 
richest  places  in  the  world.  Cromwell  settled  in  the  island  some 
of  the  troops  who  had  won  it ;  they  were  joined  by  many  settlers 
from  home,  and  planters  soon  came  from  Barbados,  especially 
many  Quakers,  whom  the  Royalists  of  that  island  would  not  tol- 
erate. Cromwell  ordered  the  Scotch  Government  to  gather  to- 
gether all  the  idle  and  disaffected  people  they  could  lay  hands 
on,  and  shipped  them  off  hither  as  laborers,  and  he  procured  many 
more,  of  both  sexes,  from  Ireland.  At  first  there  was  great  dis- 
tress among  these  poor  creatures,  but  it  ceased  as  soon  as  tlie  work 
of  planting  began.  The  sugar  cane,  with  its  tliree  valuable  prod- 
ucts— sugar,  rum,  and  molasses — pimento,  cotton,  aloes,  ginger, 
and  logwood,  soon  took  the  place  of  cocoa;  and  tiic  trade  of 
Jamaica  with  England  and  the  English,  colonies  in  Xorth  America 
grew  rapidly  in  importance.  The  manufactures  and  navigation  of 
the  mother  country  v^•cre  greatly  stimulated;  and  tlie  culture  of 
the  cane  was  extended  to  the  smaller  islands  of  Antigua,  which 
had  been  deemed  b}'  the  Spaniards  uninhabitable.  Xevis,  and 
^lontserrat. 

'rhe  Knights  of  Malta  li;i(l  obtained  of  Richelieu  a  grant  of 
St.  Christopher  and  tiirec  other  \\'c<t  Indian  Islands;  and  th.ev 
sent  out  thither  as  gdvenidr  the  wise  rind  jutlitic  I)e  Roincv.  under 
whom  their  progress  was  slow,  though  in  the  en.d  it  otitstripped 
even  tltat  of  the  lutglisli  islands.  De  Toincy,  bv  personal  studv. 
greatly  itnproved  U|)on  the  UK^tliod  o\  stigar  malo'ng  in  use  in 
r.razil  and  Madeir;!.  lie  rnVnl  :ii  Cr.-^^e  Terre.  in  St.  Chi-istopher, 
t\\ent\--onc  \'ears:  and  once  a   week  he  adniinj>tered   justice  to  the 


72  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1775 

people  under  a  great  fig-tree.  There  were  three  other  groups  in 
French  hands,  in  each  of  which  the  principal  islands  were  Guada- 
loupe,  Martinique,  and  Grenada ;  these  groups  belonged  to  three 
different  proprietors.  All  the  French  islands  carried  on  a  flourish- 
ing trade  with  the  Dutch.  Colbert,  in  the  next  generation,  per- 
ceived that  the  plantations  might  be  made  much  more  thriving 
under  one  government,  and  accordingly  in  1664  he  purchased  them 
of  their  owners  and  handed  them  over  to  a  company;  but  as  this 
did  not  flourish,  it  was  dissolved  in  1674,  and  the  islands  were 
placed  under  a  department  of  the  government.  The  settlement 
on  Santo  Domingo  soon  became  the  most  important,  and  just  as  the 
encroachments  of  the  English  settlers  had  been  confirmed  by 
treaty,  the  French  Government  acquired  a  legal  right  to  the  west- 
ern part  of  this  island  in  1697.  By  the  introduction  of  negro  labor 
a  few  years  afterward,  the  activity  of  French  enterprise  made  it  the 
most  important  settlement  in  all  America.  Sugar,  cotton,  cocoa, 
and  ginger,  and  afterward  coffee,  were  exported  hence  in  great 
quantities  to  France.  Besides  this  the  French  had  settled  on  the 
coast  of  Guiana,  and  they  took  under  their  protection  the  Maroons, 
or  runaway  negroes,  who  had  formed  a  colony  for  themselves  on 
the  Island  of  St.  Vincent.  The  progress  of  the  French  plantations 
v^-as  at  first  slower  than  tliat  of  the  English,  but  through  the  wise 
fostering  care  of  the  government  it  gradually  overtook  them.  The 
great  minister,  Colbert,  placed  them  under  a  Council  of  Com- 
merce; they  were  relieved  of  taxes,  even  for  the  payment  of  the 
salary  of  their  governors ;  the  smallest  duties  were  levied  on  their 
produce;  whereas  Cb.arles  II.  had  laid  on  the  English  plantations 
a  yearly  tax  of  four  and  one-half  per  cent,  upon  their  gross  value. 
The  French  Government  were  the  first  to  grant  lands  gratis  to  poor 
and  industrious  emigrants;  and  they  often  lent  money  to  the  plant- 
ers when  the  plantations  were  destroyed  by  hurricanes.  They 
allowed  the  shi])s  of  tlicir  merchants  strong  convo}-s,  and  built 
forti.*icatir)ns  to  protect  tiic  isL'i.ruis  from  pirates.  Hie  imj)rv)vement 
of  trade  aPid  na\i;';atioti  was  steadily  pursued  as  an  object  of  state 
])olicy  to  a  higher  degree  than  elsewhere.  Besides  the  mother- 
country  the  French  plantations  had  lawful  markets  for  their 
pnj'lnce  in  Canrula,  Cape  JJreton,  and  Louisiana,  as  well  as  the 
contrabnnrl  Spani.-h  trade. 

W'hni   ihc    I 'o;  iiiL;-iic-e  drcAX'  the  I'^utch   from    Rra/il.  an<l   the 
Treaty  ■•)[  XvimvcL;\-ii  di-nos>e->cd  them  of  Xew   York.  tlic\-  had 


THE     P  L  A  \  T  A1' I()\  S  73 

1000-1775 

nothino^  left  on  the  continent  but  Surinam,  the  scene  of  the 
faihn-e  of  Raleigh,  which  the  Zealanders  hrd  conquered  in  tlie 
war  with  England,  and  which  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty. 
They  had,  however,  taken  possession  of  Cnragao  and  St.  Eustatius 
about  1634,  and  here  they  cultivated  sugar  and  tobacco.  All  these 
settlements,  together  with  one  on  Cape  Verde  and  another  "on  the 
Guinea  coast,  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany. But  the  rich  commerce  of  the  l^'.ast  engrossed  most  of  the 
Dutch  capital;  and  the  Dutch  had  more  genius  for  commerce  than 
planting.  CuraQao  had  a  line  harl)or,  and  il  soon  became  a  great 
depot  for  East  Indian  goods,  for  the  Dutch  smugglers  were  able 
to  supply  the  Spaniards  of  the  continent  with  them  much  more 
cheaply  than  through  the  lawful  channel  of  trade.  Here  also  the 
Spaniards  purchased  their  negro  slaves  from  the  Dutch  slavers. 
Curasao  was  for  a  long  time  to  the  West  Indies  what  Amster- 
dam was  to  Europe;  all  the  colonists  came  tliither  to  buy  the  com- 
modities of  Europe  and  the  East.  The  Danes  took  possession  in 
1 67 1  of  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas,  when  they  allowed  the  free  citi- 
zens of  Hamburg  also  to  maintain  a  factory,  and  to  tliis  the  Danes 
afterward  added  that  of  Santa  Cruz,  purchased  from  h^ ranee ;  but 
they  did  not  extend  their  cultivatit)n  beyond  the  demands  of  their 
own  market.  The  commodious  harbor  of  St.  Th(Mnas  was  a  fre- 
quent resort  of  the  buccaneers,  and  its  neutrality  has  made  it  from 
early  times  the  center  of  communication  for  all  the  West  India 
islands.  It  naturally  became  another  center  of  the  smuggling 
trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  Dutch  and  the  Danes  were 
chiefly  traders,  and  their  ]:)lantations  were  quite  unimportant  by 
comparison  with  those  of  the  English  and  Erencli.  Eor  a  century 
and  a  half  the  Spaniards,  though  they  possessed  the  finest  of  the 
islands,  had  no  plantations.  Private  enterprise  is  necessary  to  the 
success  of  plantations;  and  the  Spanish  colonial  system  did  not 
favor  private  enterprise.  Cuba  produced  nothing  of  importance; 
nor  was  it  until  the  vast  trade  o\  vSanto  Domingo  was  destroyed  in 
its  terril)le  struggle  for  in(lc])eiideiice  tliat  the  jilantations  of  Cuba 
rose  to  supplv  its  place.  bAcn  llien.  il  was  long  before  a  hundredth 
part  (jf  its  surface  was  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  Havana  indeed, 
the  capital  oi  that  island,  was  ilie  ernporium  of  the  trade  of  Xew 
and  Old  Spain;  and  it  wa>  iniportar.i  as  a  naval  station  against 
pirates  and  smugglers.  Tiic  large  and  fertile  island  of  Porto  Rico 
long  remained  a  mere  ilescrl.  and  Trinidad,  tlid  nut  prosper  until  it 


74  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1775 

ceased  to  be  Spanish.  To  keep  the  best  West  India  Islands  in  this 
unproductive  state  was  perhaps  good  pohcy  on  the  part  of  the 
Spaniards.  If  they  had  settled  there,  they  would  have  tempted 
the  attacks  of  the  French  and  English,  and  under  the  Spanish  sys- 
tem of  trading  they  would  have  produced  no  profit  to  the  mother- 
country.  This  is  equally  true  of  the  lower  or  maritime  parts  of 
Mexico.  The  Spaniards  were  afraid  to  drain  and  cultivate  them, 
and  they  looked  on  this  deserted  and  unwholesome  coast  as  a 
frontier  against  the  enemy.  The  towns  on  the  seacoast  were  often 
deserted,  and  rebuilt  in  the  interior,  because  of  the  ravages  of  the 
buccaneers. 

America  in  every  way  depended  on  Africa  for  labor.  The 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  wanted  negroes  for  their  mines  of  gold, 
silver,  and  diamonds;  the  English  and  French  for  their  plantations 
of  sugar,  tobacco,  rice,  and  indigo.  It  is  true  that  a  large  number 
of  white  laborers  freely  resorted  both  to  the  French  and  the  Eng- 
lish plantations  as  lately  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  that  convicts  were  transported  thither,  who  were  forced  to 
labor  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  after  which  they  became  small 
planters  themselves,  or  emigrated  afresh  to  the  colonies  on  the  con- 
tinent. But  the  supply  of  white  labor  was  small  and  precarious; 
the  planters,  especially  the  French,  treated  the  engages,  as  they 
were  called,  with  great  cruelty;  the  system  could  not  be  applied  on 
a  very  large  scale,  and  the  planters  generally  found  it  necessary, 
and  always  found  it  best,  to  invest  a  certain  proportion  of  their 
capital  in  the  purchase  of  negroes.  The  Dutch  in  Java  and  Ceylon 
could  compel  the  natives  to  labor;  but  in  the  other  continent,  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards  found  the  natives  as  incapable  of  labor- 
ing as  themselves.  But  the  hardy  negroes  of  Africa  soon  supplied 
their  place,  h^rom  time  immemorial  the  Moors  had  sold  them  in  tlie 
markets  of  Europe  and  the  East,  and  the  Portuguese,  following 
the  steps  of  the  ]\Ioors,  introduced  them  in  the  West.  Every  Por- 
tuguese settlement  on  the  coast  of  Africa  was  an  inexhaustible 
source  of  negro  labor,  and  the  Portuguese  settlers  in  Brazil  were 
the  first  to  take  ad\antage  of  it.  The  Dutch  and  English  soon  fol- 
lowed in  the  wake  of  the  Portuguese,  and  as  the  latter  in  the  end 
possessed  themsehes  of  all  the  Portuguese  carrying-trade,  the  slave 
trade  fell  mainly  into  their  hands.  The  linglish  had  acquired  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabetli  some  factories  on  the  African 
coast,  and  these  now  Ijccamc  must  valuable  on  account  of  the  slave 


T  HEP  T.  A  N  T  A  T  I  O  N  S  75 

1600-1775 

trade.  But  the  Portuguese  always  kept  to  themselves  the  trade 
of  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  where  the  slave  traffic  was  carried  oti 
to  the  best  advantage.  So  great  were  the  toils  of  the  plantations 
that  the  negro  population  of  Barbados  wasted  away  at  the  rate  of 
sixteen  per  cent,  per  annum,  and  the  keener  the  competition  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  planters  the  harder  became  the 
stress  on  the  unfortunate  blacks.  The  negroes,  besides,  were  used 
by  Spain  to  work  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  they  were 
imported  in  large  numbers  into  New  Grenada.  The  French 
Guinea  Company  had  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  supplying  them, 
which  was  called  the  Assiento;  but  in  1713.  the  English  took  away 
this  profitable  trade  from  the  French,  and  compelled  Spain  to  a 
treaty  by  which  she  could  purchase  no  slaves,  except  from  English 
vessels.  The  English  thus  finally  monopolized  a  trade  which  they 
had  shared  for  150  years,  ever  since  Hawkins  first  carried  negroes 
for  sale  from  Guinea  to  Espanola.  In  the  colonies  of  Virginia  and 
Carolina,  where  the  slaves  were  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  and  rice,  they  rather  multiplied  than  dwindled.  The 
slaves  were  far  worse  off  in  the  English  colonies  than  in  any  other 
country  in  the  ancient  or  modern  world.  In  the  French  planta- 
tions, the  Code  Xoir  was  established  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1685,  to 
shield  them  from  cruelty ;  it  gave  slaves  some  important  civil  and 
social  rights,  and  forbade  the  separation  of  families;  but  every- 
where else  they  have  always  been  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the 
planter.  From  the  beginning  there  have  been  revolts  and  disturb- 
ances on  the  part  of  the  negroes,  and  these  were  repressed  and 
punished  in  the  most  cruel  and  inhuman  manner.  Even  a  century 
ago  rebel  negroes  were  in  Jamaica  burned  alive  by  inches  at  a  slow 
fire,  and  the  gentlest  punishment  was  to  hang  them  alive  in  chains 
and  leave  them  to  die  of  hunger.  Th.e  Dutch  treated  their  slaves 
more  cruelly  still;  but  the  Spaniards  were  more  humane,  and  ihey 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  slave  trade  itself — that  is,  with  the 
business  of  buying  the  slaves  in  the  ports  of  Africa,  and  shipping 
them  to  those  of  America.  It  was  necessary  to  continue  this  trade, 
for  the  number  of  the  slaves  continually  diiuinished ;  and  its  aboli- 
tion, in  different  parts  of  the  world,  has  always  been  the  begin.ning 
of  the  abolition  of  slaverv  itself.  Hie  Danes  were  the  first  to 
abolish  the  sla\e  traffic.  England,  France,  and  the  United  States 
of  North  America  followed.  The  abolition  of  slavery  in  Brazil. 
Cuba,  and  Porto   Rico  put  an  end  to  the  trade  in  the  western 


76  COLONIES     OF     T  PI  E     WORLD 

1600-1775 

hemisphere.  It  is  certain  that  the  West  Indies,  and  every  part  of 
the  earth  that  is  worth  cultivating,  may  be  cultivated  without  slave 
labor,  though  not  on  so  large  a  scale  as  is  possible  with  it.  Econo- 
mists have  shown  that  nothing  is  so  dear  as  slave  labor,  and  that 
only  the  most  remunerative  crops  will  sustain  the  loss  which  it 
entails ;  and  wherever  free  labor  has  been  successfully  introduced 
in  sufficient  quantity,  production  has  in  the  end  been  stimulated  by 
the  change. 

In  1660,  or  thirty-five  years  after  their  first  permanent  set- 
tlements were  made,  England  and  France  agreed  to  divide  the 
West  India  Islands,  and  to  adopt  a  common  policy  toward  the 
natives,  who  never  ceased  to  harass  them,  England  was  confirmed 
in  the  possession  of  Barbados,  Nevis,  Antigua,  and  Montserrat, 
and  several  smaller  islands;  France  in  that  of  Guadaloupe,  Mar- 
tinique, Grenada,  and  some  smaller  islands;  while  St.  Christopher 
remained  common  to  both.  The  remains  of  the  aborigines,  about 
6000  in  number,  were  driven  to  the  islands  of  Dominica,  St.  Lucia, 
and  St.  Vincent.  But  both  England  and  France  claimed  these 
islands.  Such  settlements  as  were  made  on  them  were  French, 
and  the  two  latter  islands  were  occupied  under  Marshal  D'Estrees 
in  1719.  In  1748  these  islands  were  declared  neutral;  but  in  1763 
they  were  all  given  up  to  England,  except  St.  Lucia,  and  the 
wretched  remnant  of  the  natives  were  driven  to  the  continent. 
Until  the  anti-slavery  movement  grew  irresistible,  the  West  Indies 
never  ceased  to  be  an  object  of  jealousy  to  the  two  governments. 
With  the  growth  of  these  valuable  possessions  the  struggles  of 
Europe  first  reached  the  shores  of  the  New  World,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  European  wars  many  of  the  West  India  Islands  have 
changed  hands  several  times.  Thus,  Antigua  and  Montserrat  were 
taken  by  the  French,  but  restored  at  the  Peace  of  Breda.  One  of 
tlie  first  incidents  in  the  war  waged  by  the  Grand  Alliance  of 
Western  Europe  against  Louis  XIV.  was  tlie  expulsion  of  the 
English  from  St.  Christopher;  but  Captain  Wren  recovered  the 
honor  of  the  English  flag,  and  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  restored 
things  as  tliey  were.  In  the  ^^^ar  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  Nevis 
and  other  English  islands  were  attacked  by  the  French,  but  with- 
out permanent  success;  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756)  the  Eng- 
lish marine  proved  superior  to  that  of  Spain  and  France  united; 
and  by  the  Peace  of  Paris  in  1763  the  English  possessions  were 
increased  bv  tlie  iskmds  of  Grenada,  Dominica,  and  Tobago.     In 


THE     PLANTATIONS  77 

1600-1775 

the  war  which  followed  the  independence  of  America  and  the 
French  Revolution,  changes  took  place  by  which  on  the  whole 
England  benefited,  and  the  i)ower  of  England  in  the  West  Indies 
lias  steadily  increased,  at  the  expense  firstly  of  Spain,  and  secondly 
of  her  rival  France.  The  French  islands,  however,  have  always 
surpassed  the  English  islands  in  prosperity  and  good  management. 
This  is  partly  because  most  of  the  h^rench  planters  lived  perma- 
nently on  their  island,  whereas  the  English  ahvays  went  home 
when  they  had  made  their  fortunes,  and  became  absentees,  whose 
only  interest  was  to  get  as  much  money  as  possible  out  of  their 
estates.  They  committed  the  whole  care  of  their  estates  to  some 
shipping  agent  living  in  London  or  Bristol,  whose  business  it  w'as 
to  furnish  the  plantation  with  all  that  was  necessary,  and  to  receive 
and  dispose  of  the  produce  when  sent  home.  Hence  there  never 
arose  in  the  British  plantations  a  class  of  wealthy  and  independent 
merchants  like  those  of  the  French  islands. 

Xot  only  did  the  wealth  of  tlie  West  Indies  stimulate  the 
manufactures  of  the  mother  countries,  but  it  gave  the  agricultural 
colonies  on  the  continent  of  Xorth  America  their  first  impulse  to 
produce  more  than  they  consumed.  The  great  populations  of  the 
West  India  Islands  had  to  be  fed,  and  land  was  too  valuable  there 
to  be  used  for  producing  corn  and  beef.  Each  group  of  islands 
included  indeed  some  one  which  was  specially  destined  to  raising 
fresh  provisions  for  the  rest,  such  as  the  English  island  of  Bar- 
buda, and  the  Dutch  island  of  Aruba.  But  the  continent  alone 
could  supply  subsistence  to  so  large  a  multitude  of  laborers;  and 
the  exports  of  beef,  pork,  and  cheese  from  Canada  to  tlie  French 
islands,  and  fn^m  New  Iv.igland  to  the  English  islands,  socni 
became  immense.  l^ach  district  seemed  formed  to  supply  the 
wants  of  the  ()ther.  Besides,  a  great  m:irket  v/as  opened  here 
for  the  refuse  of  the  great  Xcwfoinvllaiid  fishery,  for  the  ad- 
vantages of  which  the  l'"ren(.-h  now  began  to  contend,  though 
without  success.  In  return  lor  ilic-e  imports  ilie  isiantls  supplied 
the  continent  wiih  the  i)rodr.cLs  of  thic  cane.  ?\[any  of  the  islands, 
howex'cr,  were  still  supplied  with  provisions  from  the  niijther  cnv.n- 
tries;  and  in  the  nn'ddle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Etig- 
lish  colonies  of  Xorth  America  had  already  begun  to  send  corn 
to  feed  the  increased  pujnilaiicjn  of  England,  the  \ast  colony  cf 
l!razil  was  de])cn(Ifiil  nixni  l-airojie  for  ii^  daily  br-.;'.d.  \\'\[\\  \]]:- 
increased    tr;iffic    caiiic    a    \";i>l    Lirowtii    ci    the    c  mii  raband    ira.d','. 


78  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1775 

The  French  islands  were  fast  outstripping  the  English  in  wealth 
and  population,  and  were  able  to  produce  so  much  more  cheaply 
than  the  latter  that  the  growth  of  a  smuggling  trade  be- 
tween them  and  New  England  was  inevitable.  Trade  will  always 
find  the  channel  which  is  natural  to  it,  and  smuggling  in  all  its 
branches  was  soon  practiced  in  the  West  Indies  with  great  skill 
and  success.  The  Dutch,  Danish,  and  French  islands  were  mar- 
kets for  all  European  manufactures;  the  Spaniards  came  to  buy 
there  because  it  was  the  cheapest  market;  and  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment was  forced  to  connive  at  the  practice.  The  success  of  their 
plantations  led  the  French  to  conceive  the  grand  idea  of  colonizing 
the  vast  and  fertile  island  of  ^Madagascar.  Colbert  had  already 
encouraged  the  Oriental  trade  by  the  establishment,  in  1664,  of 
a  French  East  India  Company  with  a  charter  of  fifty  years'  dura- 
tion, and  great  privileges  of  every  kind,  and  he  intended  to  make 
IMadagascar  the  bulwark  of  the  future  French  empire  in  India. 
Few  projects  have  been  more  promising.  The  island  was  fertile 
in  all  the  products  of  the  tropics;  the  people  were  numerous,  in- 
telligent, and  docile ;  and  nothing  was  wanting  but  skill,  honesty, 
and  perseverance  on  the  part  of  the  company's  agents.  But  these 
were  wanting.  Many  of  the  colonists  quitted  the  island  in  despair, 
and  in  1672  those  who  remained  were  massacred  by  the  natives. 
A  century  elapsed  before  the  attempt  was  renewed ;  but  it  was  not 
completely  successful  until  1895.  The  chief  result  of  these  at- 
tempts was  the  introduction  of  rice,  the  principal  staple  of  Mad- 
agascar, into  the  Carolinas.  A  lasting  impulse  was  given  to  Eng- 
lish shipbuilding  and  navigation  by  the  vast  trade  of  the  plantations. 
The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonies  traded  with  Europe  only  by 
means  of  the  government  register  ships,  and  the  Dutch  and  French 
had  established  a  monopoly,  though  a  far  less  pernicious  one,  in 
committing  the  trade  of  both  Indies  to  exclusive  companies.  The 
Act  of  Navigation  deprived  the  Dutch  of  the  trade  of  the  West 
Indies,  of  which  they  had  hitherto  been  in  possession:  and  the 
trade  to  the  wlinle  Atlantic  coast  of  America,  including  the  islands, 
was  opened  to  Engli>h  vessels  and  closed  to  all  otliers.  Barbados 
alone  employed  alxmt  f- >nr  hundred:  and  the  effect  of  the  great 
traffic  to  and  fro  was  to  raise  the  power  of  the  English  at  sea  in 
the  space  of  fifty  years  to  a  position  which  rivaled  that  of  the  Dutch 
themselves.  The  preponderance,  however,  of  the  Eastern  trade 
maintained   tlic   Dulcli    in   the   fnmt    rank  dnwn   to  tlie  end  of  tlie 


T  H  E     1»  L  A  N  T  A  T  1  O  N  S  79 

1600-1775 

seventeenth  century.  After  that  time,  the  successive  growth  of 
the  West  Indies,  of  the  North  American  colonies,  and  of  the  Eng- 
lish East  Indian  trade,  placed  the  English  greatly  in  advance  of 
all  other  nations. 

The  establishment  of  the  plantations  may  be  taken  as  a  favor- 
able opportunity  for  reviewing  the  progress  of  colonization  during 
the  five  or  six  generations  after  that  of  Gama  and  Columbus.  The 
largest  space  in  the  eye  of  the  world  was  still  at  this  time  occupied 
by  the  gold-  and  silver-producing  countries  of  South  America.  The 
silver  of  Mexico  and  Peru  had  greatly  contributed  to  the  extension 
of  commerce  in  the  eastern  hemisphere;  and  each  of  the  nations 
wdiich  were  competing  for  the  trade  of  the  East  anticipated  the 
day  when  its  grasp  should  be  laid  on  the  riches  of  the  West.  This, 
at  any  rate,  w^as  the  belief  of  Spain;  and  hence  the  severe  strug- 
gles of  Spain  to  prevent  the  settlements  of  other  nations  in  the 
West  Indies  and  on  the  American  coast.  These  settlements  grew 
entirely  out  of  the  expeditions  of  the  buccaneers,  who  harassed 
the  Spaniards  by  sea  and  land ;  the  islands  were  gradually  taken 
up  by  the  planters  of  several  nations,  encouraged  and  assisted  by 
the  governments,  all  hostile  to  the  pretensions  of  Spain.  The 
capture  of  Jamaica,  in  1655,  marks  the  period  w'hen  the  lawless 
rule  of  the  buccaneers  began  to  be  exchanged  for  the  control  of 
European  governments.  England  and  France  were  spreading  in 
different  directions  in  the  northern  hemisphere;  the  trade  of  the 
Dutch  with  the  East  was  at  its  zenith ;  neither  the  English  nor 
French  could  pretend  to  be  their  rivals,  for  the  Dutch  trade 
supplied  most  of  continental  luirope,  while  neither  the  trade  of 
England  nor  France  as  yet  extended  beyond  their  own  needs.  The 
most  important  object,  next  to  the  possession  of  lands  rich  in  gold 
and  silver,  was  that  of  a  soil  rich  in  productions  which  were 
readily  exchanged  for  gold  and  silver  in  the  markets  of  Europe. 
The  plantations  soon  began  to  eclipse  the  Eastern  trade,  and  it  is 
to  their  rise  that  we  may  attribute  the  slow  growth  of  the  Frencli 
and  English  East  India  companies.  How  great  the  importance 
of  the  plantations  was  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  at  the 
time  of  the  hYench  Revolution  h'rance  drew  as  much  wealth  from 
the  single  island  of  Santo  Domingo  as  England  drew  from  India,  or 
Spain  from  Alexico  and  Peru.  Xor  did  the  European  wars  retard 
the  general  growth  of  the  plantations,  for  the  capture  of  an  island 
always  stimulated  its  productions  by  the  influx  of  new  planters. 


80  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-lt7S 

It  was  calculated  that  every  European  employed  in  the  plantations, 
including  the  sailors  employed  in  the  trade  thither,  furnished  em- 
ployment for  four  pairs  of  hands  at  home.  Thus,  as  in  1670  it 
was  calculated  that  250,000  English  were  engaged  in  planting  or 
in  the  plantation  trade,  1,000,000  of  people,  or  one-seventh  of  the 
entire  population,  must  have  been  dependent  upon  it  at  home.  On 
the  whole,  we  may  say  that  the  ^^''est  India  plantations  were  to 
England  in  the  time  of  Charles  II.  very  much  what  the  cotton  and 
iron  manufactures  are  in  our  own  times,  and  that  their  importance 
was  so  much  the  greater,  as  there  had  been  nothing  to  disturb  the 
balance  of  the  landed  and  mercantile  interests,  greatly  in  favor  of 
the  former,  which  had  existed  since  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  This 
balance  was  now  reversed,  and  the  growth  of  the  mercantile  inter- 
est was  accomipanied  by  the  growth  of  a  new  political  doctrine 
known  as  Whiggism,  based,  like  the  former,  on  an  adoption  of 
Dutch  ideas.  Political  troubles  had  contributed  to  the  growth  of 
the  English  plantations ;  and  when  these  were  over,  it  seemed  as 
if  the  impulse  to  West  Indian  enterprise  was  checked.  At  any 
rate,  tlie  eighteenth  century  has  but  little  enterprise  to  show.  Land 
was  selling  for  100/.  an  acre  in  Barbados;  but  no  one  attempted 
to  colonize  the  Bahamas,  and  not  one-tenth  part  of  Jamaica  was 
under  cultivation.  An  energetic  and  sagacious  government  might 
have  changed  the  face  of  affairs;  but  in  the  meantime  a  different 
field  of  enterprise  was  being  opened.  The  plantations  had  helped 
the  growth  of  agricultural  colonies,  and  the  latter  soon  rose  to  an 
unexpected  degree  of  importance. 


Chapter    V 

NEW   FRANCE   AND   NEW    ENGLAND.     1500- 1777 

THE  discoverers  of  America  were  speedily  followed  by  the 
hardy  sailors  of  Normandy  and  Brittany.  One  of  these, 
in  1506,  reached  the  mouth  of  the  great  River  St.  Law- 
rence, and  called  the  country  on  its  west  side  Cape  Breton.  The 
French,  hearing  the  natives  talk  of  their  Canada,  or  huts,  sup- 
posed this  to  be  the  name  of  the  country;  but  it  went  at  first  by  the 
name  of  Acadia.  The  Frencli  were  not  disposed  to  forego  their 
claims  to  America,  and  Francis  L  was  as  anxious  as  anyone  else 
to  share  in  the  gold  and  silver  of  the  New  World.  He  would 
certainly  have  fitted  out  ships  fur  tlie  East  Indies  had  not  his  wars 
with  Charles  V.  prevented  it.  In  1523  he  sent  out  an  expedition 
of  discovery  to  the  American  coast  under  Verazzano,  of  Flor- 
ence; but  his  plans  were  cut  short  by  misfortunes  at  home.  Francis 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia,  and  Verazzano  never  returned  to 
France.  Ten  years  passed  before  the  attempt  was  renewed.  At 
last  Francis  sent  out  a  second  expedition,  commanded  by  Jacques 
Cartier,  of  St.  Malo,  which  had  more  important  consequences.  In 
1534  Cartier  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  saw  the  ca])acity  of 
its  banks  for  receiving  a  great  agricultural  colony;  he  called  the 
])lace  New  France,  and  in  1540  lie  conducted  thither  200  colonists, 
under  Francois  de  Rubcrval  as  lieutenant  general,  who  formed 
the  germ  of  the  future  "Canadian  nation,"  as  the  iMTnch  settlers 
afterward  learned  to  call  themselves.  But  the  wars  of  Spain  and 
France  hindered  the  })rogress  of  this  colony,  and  Cartier  himself, 
foiled  in  the  attempt  to  reach  the  East  Indies  by  a  northwest  pas- 
sage, lost  all  heart  for  further  discoveries.  The  first  permanent 
settlement  in  Canada  was  founded  by  Champlain  in  1608. 

Everywhere  we  may  trace  the  effect  of  the  Reformation  on 
the  direction  and  character  of  C(^lonial  enterprise.  The  colonv  on 
the  St.  Lawrence  was  C\athr^Hc:  and  the  great  I'rotestant  statesman 
Coligny  formed   plans   for  ciijcnic-^  which  should  he  a  retreat    \<'V 

SI 


82  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1500-1775 

the  Huguenots,  whose  final  defeat  he  foresaw,  and  thither  he  hoped 
himself  to  retire  and  end  his  days  in  peace.  But  every  one  of  his 
projects  failed.  The  first  attempt  was  made  in  Brazil  in  1556. 
Coligny  entrusted  this  expedition  to  a  Knight  of  Malta,  called  Ville- 
gaignon ;  but  this  man,  seeing  the  Huguenot  cause  failing  at  home, 
tried  to  make  the  colony  Catholic.  Many  French  Protestants  and 
Flemings  who  were  ready  to  emigrate  to  Rio  Janeiro  stayed  at 
home,  and  the  Portuguese  expelled  all  the  French  in  1560.  In 
1562  an  attempt  was  made  to  found  a  Huguenot  colony  in  Florida. 
Many  of  the  nobility  w'ent  out,  and  they  were  accompanied  by  a 
strong  guard  of  troops.  For  a  time  all  went  on  well,  but  in  1564 
the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  the  colony,  and  massacred  the 
settlers.  They  put  up  an  inscription  stating  that  this  was  done 
not  because  the  murdered  men  were  Frenchmen,  but  because  they 
W'Cre  Protestants.  Three  years  afterward  a  Huguenot  called  De 
Gourgues  sailed  to  Florida,  took  the  forts,  and  hung  up  all  the 
Spaniards  with  an  inscription  over  their  heads,  "  Not  as  Spaniards, 
but  as  robbers  and  murderers."  Thus  far  the  French  w-ere  every- 
W'here  unfortunate.  The  English  successfully  contested  with  them 
the  possession  of  the  great  Newfoundland  fishery.  Several  parties 
of  fishermen  from  Normandy,  Brittany,  and  Biscay  tried  to  estab- 
lish themselves  there  about  1598,  but  all  attempts  at  a  permanent 
colony  failed. 

With  the  return  of  peace  in  the  seventeenth  century,  French 
attempts  to  colonize  took  a  successful  turn.  In  1603  Champlain 
made  the  first  permanent  settlement  on  the  St.  Lawrence;  a  fort 
was  built  on  the  cliff  of  Quebec,  and  a  few  years  afterward  a  few 
wooden  cabins  arose  on  the  island  of  Montreal.  The  new  settle- 
ment was  formed  exactly  on  the  model  of  Old  France.  Great 
tracts  of  lands  were  granted  out  as  fiefs  to  any  who  seemed  likely 
to  carry  settlers  out  with  them.  The  lord  selected  a  strong  position 
for  his  own  domain,  and  around  this  were  spread  the  holdings  of 
the  peasantry,  granted  out  freely  at  small  quit-rents.  The  peas- 
ants were  b(jund  to  military  service,  w-hich  was  often  in  requisi- 
tion against  the  Indians.  The  lord  had  the  sole  right  of  grinding 
corn,  of  trading  in  furs,  and  of  fishing:  so  that  Canada  was  from 
the  first  an  agricultural  colony  on  the  feudal  model.  The  wooded 
peninsula  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  had  not  escaped  the 
notice  of  the  h^rcnch  voyagers,  and  in  1602  Henry  IV.  granted  it 
by  the  native  name  of  La  Cadie,  afterward  Latinized  as  Acadia,  to 


CllAMIT.  \l  \     .-IkKKMiKK-    i  M    Kn.i       lii    AU  M  1 KAI.     KIKKK.    JII.V    JO,     lOJQ 


NEW  FRANCE  AND  NEW  ENGLAND  83 

1500-1775 

Pierre  de  Monts,  a  Protestant  nobleman,  who  founded  a  small 
colony  in  the  great  harbor,  which  he  called  Portroyal,  and  another 
on  one  of  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  La  Croix.  Though 
De  Monts  was  a  Huguenot,  the  colony  was  accompanied  by  Catho- 
lic fathers  to  convert  the  Indians.  But  the  English,  who  were  far 
stronger  on  these  coasts  than  the  French,  viewed  these  beginnings 
with  jealousy;  the  wliolc  coast  was  claimed  by  them  as  part  of 
Virginia,  and  the  governor  of  Jamestown,  in  1613,  destroyed  all 
the  French  settlements  in  Acadia,  which  the  Catholic  government 
at    home    took    small    pains    to    protect.     The    country    remained 


uncolonized  until  162 1.  and  the  two  nations  C(intinued  to  share 
the  fishery.  James  I.  made  a  fresh  settlement  of  Acadia  in  162 1. 
granting  it  to  Sir  William  iMexander,  afterward  Earl  of  Stir- 
ling, by  the  name  of  Xova  Scotia  or  Xcw  Scotland.  Alexander 
sold  it  out  in  large  pmlions  to  intending  emigrants,  who  were 
dignified  by  the  king  with  the  title  of  Baronets  of  Xova  Scotia ;  and 
he  then  sold  the  whole  colony  to  Louis  XIll.  of  France.  Charles 
L  confirmed  the  sale  on  his  marriage  with  the  sister  of  Louis 
XIII.,  and  the  French  reappeared  oft*  Portroyal.  In  1627  war 
broke  out  between  k^rancc  and  luiglaiid.  and  Alexander,  assisted 
b}-  .'mother  Scoichnian,   Sir  l)a\i(l   Kirk.  conf[uered  the  whole  of 


84  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1500-1775 

the  French  settlements,  which  they  divided  between  them,  Kirk 
taking  the  parts  about  Quebec  as  his  share,  and  Alexander  Acadia. 
But  when  peace  was  made,  in  1631,  Richelieu  recovered  both  places 
for  France,  paying-,  of  course,  a  proper  compensation  to  Kirk  and 
Alexander;  and  he  secured  the  French  a  participation  in  the  fish- 
eries. The  title  of  Baronet  of  Nova  Scotia,  however,  still  survived 
as  an  honorary  distinction,  and  many  Scotch  gentlemen  were  glad 
to  pay  a  good  sum  for  having  it  conferred  upon  them. 

In  his  expedition  of  1596  Cabot  had  discovered  Newfoundland 
and  taken  possession  of  the  whole  coast,  but  for  a  long  time  the 
English  made  no  attempts  at  colonization.  The  fisheries  were 
sought  by  English  vessels  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
and  although  the  vessels  of  Spain  and  other  nations  were  more 
numerous  than  the  English,  the  right  of  England  to  the  coast  came 
gradually  to  be  acknowledged.  The  reign  of  Elizabeth  saw  the 
beginning  of  English  colonial  enterprise.  By  this  time  France 
had  occupied  the  St.  Lawrence,  although  there  was  no  permanent 
settlement  on  the  St.  Lawrence  until  1608,  and  Spain  had  taken 
Florida,  so  that  the  English  were  obliged  to  content  themselves  with 
the  intermediate  coasts.  Jealousy  and  hatred  of  Spain,  com- 
bined with  a  bold  spirit  of  adventure,  drove  the  English  to 
settle  in  the  new  world.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  a  Devonshire 
mariner,  sailed  for  America  in  1580;  and  though  he  failed  to  reach 
it,  he  started  again  in  1582.  His  best  ship  was  only  of  200  tons 
burden,  and  the  Squirrel,  in  which  he  sailed  himself,  was  only  of 
ten  tons.  His  expedition  was  lost  at  sea,  only  one  of  his  ships,  the 
Golden  Hind,  returning  safe  to  England.  The  English  gained  ex- 
perience in  their  great  naval  wars  with  Spain,  but  all  individual 
attempts  at  colonies  v^-ere  unsuccessful.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
headed  seven  expeditions  to  America;  in  1584  and  1587  he  tried  to 
settle  a  colony  called  Virginia,  in  honor  of  the  virgin  Queen  Eliza- 
beth ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  James  I.  and  the  establishment 
of  the  London  and  Plymouth  companies  that  this  was  effected. 
After  1606  the  English  North  American  colonies  steadily  grew 
along  the  shore. ^  In  the  interior,  they  were  stopped  by  the  range 
of  mountains  called  the  Appalachians,  or  Alleglianies,  which  sep- 
arate the  coast  country  from  the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributaries,  the  country  beyond  being  at  first  quite  unknown. 

^  TIic  \'\yA  permanent   T-ji.ilj:];.],    settlement   \va-    at  J.anieslown,   Va.,   in    1(107; 
the  second  at  Plymnutli,  ?ilass.,  in   \()20. 


VEW  FUANCE  AND  NEW  ENGLAND  85 

1500-1775 

and  afterward  claimed  by  France.  Agriculture  made  far  more 
progress  in  the  English  colonies  than  in  New  France,  where  the 
trade  with  the  Indians  for  skins,  and  the  fisheries,  chiefly  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  settlers ;  and  in  the  English  colonies  the  moun- 
tain frontier  afforded  a  protection  against  the  hostility  of  the 
natives,  which  was  wanting  in  Canada. 

Beyond  this  barrier  the  vast  regions  of  the  ^Mississippi  and 
the  Ohio  remained  in  possession  of  the  Indians,  and  the  French 
were  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  displacing  them.  As  with 
the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  Christianity  was  employed  by  the 
French  as  an  engine  of  conquest,  and  the  Jesuit  missionaries  be- 
gan to  spread  all  over  the  Indian  country  from  the  north.  In  1680 
La  Salle  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  was  entrusted 
by  Louis  XIV.  wdth  the  conduct  of  the  first  attempt  at  the  settle- 
ment of  the  country  about  there.  The  attempt  failed;  but  it  was 
renewed  about  1700  by  Iberville,  a  Canadian.  The  French  claimed 
the  whole  country  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  name  of  New  France  was  given  to 
it  on  the  maps.  This  claim  violated  the  principle  that  whatever 
nation  possessed  the  seacoast  was  entitled  to  the  interior  as  far  as 
colonization  was  possible.  Davenant,  in  1698,  pointed  out  that  the 
consequence  of  allowing  the  ambition  of  France  to  work  its  way 
unchecked  would  be  to  cramp  the  growing  colonies  of  Eng- 
land, and  in  the  years  which  followed  the  necessity  of  planting  a 
new  set  of  colonies  in  the  west  on  the  Mississippi  and  on  its  tribu- 
taries, was  urged  by  the  English.  The  few  settlers  of  either  nation 
who  found  their  way  into  these  remote  parts  were  exposed  to  the 
hostilities  of  each  other,  and  of  the  savage  Indian  tribes,  although 
the  boundaries  were  settled  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Cliapelle  in 
1748,  and  in  1756  a  great  war  was  fought  for  the  decision  of  the 
question.  In  the  meantime,  just  as  in  the  West  Indi;ui  plantations, 
England  had  been  slowly  strcnglliening  her  position.  In  1713, 
by  the  Peiice  of  L'trecht,  she  once  more  gained  .\cadia,  or  Nova 
Scotia,  though  tliis  rich  land  hmg  remained  little  better  than  a 
wilderness;  and  the  colony  of  Georgia  was  founded  in  1732  as  a 
barrier  at  once  against  France  and  against  Spain  in  the  south.  Xo 
English  colony  advanced  so  fast  as  Pennsylvania.  Besides  reli- 
gious toleration,  this  was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  liberal 
dealing  of  Penn  with  his  settlers,  and  to  its  security  from  the 
attacks  of  the  Indians,  who  had  been  kindlv  treated  bv  him.     Fortv 


86  COLONIES    OF    THE    WORLD 

1500-1775 

years  after  its  establishment,  Pennsylvania  had  more  inhabitants 
than  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  Maryland  together.^ 

Wherever  the  French  have  gained  a  footing,  the  English  have 
sooner  or  later  supplanted  them.  The  route  by  land  to  Hudson's 
Bay,  discovered  by  the  English  navigator  of  that  name  in  1610, 
was  first  explored  by  the  French,  and  a  trade  in  peltry  with 
the  Indians  was  commenced;  but  English  traders  soon  followed, 
and  a  company  for  the  acquisition  of  the  trade  was  formed  in 
1670.  The  French  in  1682  undertook  to  dislodge  them,  and  in 
1685  De  Troyes  drove  them  from  all  their  possessions  except 
Port  Nelson.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company,  however,  continued 
to  flourish,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  the  French 
were  obliged  to  renounce  all  their  pretensions  to  these  set- 
tlements, though  they  continued  to  carry  on  a  great  trade  in  furs 
through  Canada.  No  trade  was  so  profitable  as  this  to  those  who 
engaged  in  it.  The  furs  of  the  Arctic  zone,  formerly  bought  at  a 
vast  price  from  the  merchants  of  Italy,  who  procured  them  by  a 
circuitous  route  from  Siberia,  have  always  maintained  great  prices 
in  Europe,  and  they  were  now  obtained  of  the  simple  Indians  in 
endless  quantities  for  articles  of  the  most  trifling  value.  The  re- 
turn to  the  capital  invested  in  the  trade  was  no  less  than  six  to  one. 

The  French  maintained  themselves  longer  in  the  icy  penin- 
sula of  Labrador,  which  bounds  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at 
its  north  side.  Labrador  is  habitable  to  none  but  the  native  Esqui- 
maux ;  but  with  them  the  French  carried  on  profitable  trade  in 
ironware  and  woolen  clothing.  Labrador  passed  with  the  rest  of 
New  France  to  the  English  by  the  peace  of  1763.  Newfoundland 
had  come  into  their  possession  at  the  same  time  with  Nova  Scotia, 
in  1 7 13.  The  French  fishing  station  at  Plaisance  had  always  been 
an  eyesore  to  the  occupants  of  the  English  forts,  and  its  cession 
left  the  English  masters  of  the  whole  island.  The  French  fisher- 
men, however,  were  still  allowed  to  ply  their  trade  north  of  Cape 
Bonavista,  and  to  occupy  the  shore  for  the  purpose  of  curing  their 
fish.  The  French  now  concentrated  themselves  on  Cape  Breton 
Island,  the  first  of  their  possessions  in  the  Gulf  of  the  St.  Law- 

-The  best  estimate  of  the  population  of  these  colonies  about  this  time  (1720) 
is  as  follows:  Pennsylvania  (1730),  69,000;  Maryland  (1721),  60,000;  Virginia 
(1720),  100,000;  North  Carolina  (1717),  10,000;  South  Carolina  (1720),  20,000. 
Virginia  held  the  first  place  until  1820,  when  it  was  taken  by  New  York.— 
I\  B.  Dexter  in  /Ivicrican  Antiquity  Society  Proceedings  (N.  S.),  Vol.  V,  pp. 
3«-47. 


NEW  FRANCE  AND  NEW  ENGLAND  87 

1500-1775 

rence.  Their  industry  so  greatly  extended  their  fishing  trade,  that 
at  the  time  of  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  it  was  far  greater  than 
that  of  the  English,  and  employed  27,000  men.  The  produce  of 
this  vast  industry  found  its  way  to  the  ports  of  Brittany  and  Bis- 
cay. By  the  peace  of  1763  the  English  obtained  Cape  Breton 
Island  and  the  exclusion  of  the  French  from  the  Bay  of  St.  Law- 
rence and  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland.  For  twenty  years  the 
French  were  only  allowed  to  touch  at  the  small  islands  of  St.  Pierre 
and  Miquelon,  on  the  south  of  Newfoundland,  but  in  1783  they 
recovered  their  right  to  fish  in  the  Gulf  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Between  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon  rivers, 
that  is,  on  the  debatable  ground  between  Brazil  and  the  Central 
American  settlements  of  the  Spaniards,  lay  a  large  alluvial  tract 
of  country  which  was  neglected  by  both.  The  French,  Dutch,  and 
English  who  passed  it  on  every  voyage  to  Brazil,  heard  marvelous 
stories  of  the  gold  that  it  contained.  The  story  went  that  besides 
Mexico  and  Peru  there  was  a  third  native  empire  with  a  capital 
called  Eldorado  which  far  exceeded  them  both  in  wealth  and  splen- 
dor; and  it  was  believed  that  it  would  be  found  in  the  mountains 
beyond  this  coast,  which  was  called  Guayana  by  the  Portuguese 
and  the  Wild  Coast  by  the  English.  It  was  hither  that  Raleigh 
led  an  expedition,  memorable  only  for  its  failure  and  the  death 
of  his  son.  in  search  of  the  precious  metals.  One  of  the  first 
attempts  of  Dutch  enterprise,  in  1590,  was  to  occupy  a  soil  which 
reminded  them  strongly  of  their  own ;  this  was  on  the  Demerara 
River,  and  now  belongs  to  England.  They  afterward  settled  on 
the  Essequibo  and  Berbice  rivers ;  and  though  the  French  settled 
here  as  early  as  1604,  yet  the  colony  of  Cayenne  could  never  be 
said  to  flourish.  The  English  had  settled  at  Surinam  in  1634,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  impulse  given  to  West  Indian  enterprise  by  the 
cessation  of  the  Cix'il  War  and  tlie  wise  policy  of  Cromwell,  that 
the  settlement  really  l)cgan  to  tlonrisli.  The  Dutch  conquered  the 
British  settlements  in  ]C)C)y.  and  held  them  till  the  Peace  of  Breda, 
when  they  retained  thcni  in  cxcliangc  tor  Xew  York.  People  in 
England  were  alwavs  proposing  new  settlements  in  Guiana;  but 
the  better  informed  always  kujUed  upon  the  plan  as  hopeless.  The 
soil  of  Guiana  resembles  in  its  situation  that  of  Holland.  The  sur- 
face is  on  a  level  with  the  sea  at  high  water,  and  when  the  land 
is  drained  and  em1)an]<C(l.  it  consolidates  and  sinks  a  foot  beli'w  iv. 
The  DiUch  wore  exncricnccd  in  constructing"  the  d\kes  and  -hiiro>, 

1  o  - 


88  COLONIES    OF    THE    WORLD 

1500-1775 

and  other  works  necessary  to  improve  such  a  soil.  These  works 
have  to  be  kept  carefully  in  repair ;  but  once  constructed,  the  labor 
of  cultivation  is  light,  and  the  expense  is  but  a  fraction  of  that 
necessary  in  the  West  Indies,  The  Guianas  have  never  flourished 
as  plantations  until  they  have  been  cultivated  on  the  Dutch  system ; 
but  when  this  has  been  done,  they  have  proved  more  productive 
than  even  the  West  India  Islands.  They  soon  produced  sugar, 
cotton,  indigo,  coffee,  tobacco,  spices,  drugs,  and  valuable  woods. 
The  Dutch  planters  have  always  been  in  advance  of  the  French, 
The  latter  committed  the  error  of  occupying  the  less  fertile  slopes 
of  the  highlands,  instead  of  imitating  the  Dutch  in  the  profitable 
labor  of  drainage  and  embankment. 

France  was  at  this  time  far  ahead  of  England  in  the  skill  and 
foresight  with  wiiich  her  foreign  and  domestic  affairs  were  man- 
aged. Except  Cromwell,  England  had  no  statesman,  like  Colbert, 
able  to  comprehend  the  situation  of  the  country  with  respect  to 
its  colonies,  and  to  see  the  advantages  derivable  from  their  careful 
regulation.  The  West  India  plantations  of  France  had  been 
founded  by  private  enterprise,  and  remained  the  property  of  in- 
dividuals. They  passed  through  the  hands  of  various  owners,  and 
the  greater  part  of  them  were  at  one  time  in  the  possession  of  the 
Knights  of  Malta;  but  in  1664  Colbert  had  purchased  all  of  them 
from  their  owners,  and  handed  them  over  to  a  West  India  Com- 
pany. This  was,  however,  abolished  ten  years  afterward,  and  the 
French  plantations  again  became  private  property.  All  the  pos- 
sessions of  France  in  America  were  on  the  same  footing.  The 
trade  of  the  colonies  was,  of  course,  restricted  to  French  ships ;  but, 
unlike  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  system,  strangers  were  not 
obstructed  from  visiting  the  colonies  and  settling  there.  There  was 
no  special  bo;ird  lor  their  a(lniinistrati(jn.  Tliey  were  governed 
by  tlie  Minister  of  the  Marine,  and  their  internal  administration 
was  divided  betuecn  a  governor  and  an  intendant.  The  earher 
half  of  the  eighteenih  century  was  the  flourishing  period  of  the 
French  colonies.  The  French  had  by  this  time  almost  gained  all 
the  West  African  trade,  except  that  in  slaves,  and  they  had  greatly 
encroached  upon  the  English  in  this;  they  were  encroaching  upon 
the  Dutch  and  Spaniards  in  Guiana;  in  North  America  they  were 
pursuing  the  plan  of  Louis  XIV.  for  hemming  in  the  English  by 
a  chain  of  settlements  extending  fnjni  tlie  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
to  Canada;  the}-  had   strongly    forlihed   Cape   Breton   Island;   the 


NEW  FRANCE  AND  NEW  ENGLAND  89 

1500-1776 

growth  of  Louisiana  had  begun  to  encroach  upon  Mexico  and 
Florida.  Neither  England  nor  Spain  took  much  notice  of  this 
extension  of  the  French  colonies,  which  was  the  result  of  the  steady 
policy  of  the  French  Government. 

Until  the  time  of  Charles  IL,  the  Government  took  no  official 
notice  of  the  colonies.  Cromwell  had  passed  the  famous  law  which 
limited  their  trade,  but  until  1666  they  were  free  from  Gov- 
ernment control.  In  that  year  a  Committee  of  Privy  Council, 
called  the  Committee  of  Trade  and  Plantations,  was  appointed  to 
regulate  them;  in  1681  the  duties  of  this  body  had  become  so 
important  that  they  were  discharged  by  the  whole  Council  sitting 
as  a  committee,  and  in  1696  they  were  transferred  to  a  permanent 
body  called  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations,  constituted  under 
the  direction  of  the  Whig  politicians,  Somers  and  Locke.  Until 
this  time  jobbers  and  capitalists  had  not  despaired  of  gaining  the 
trade  of  the  colonies  for  a  privileged  company.  The  Stuarts  hated 
the  colonies  and  their  inhabitants,  and  they  would  have  been  very 
glad  to  raise  money  by  selling  the  commerce  of  the  colonies  to  the 
highest  bidder.  Charles  IL  laid  heavy  duties  on  their  produce, 
and  James  IL,  under  French  influence,  permanently  crippled  the 
English  sugar  trade  by  loading  it  with  a  heavy  duty.  William  III. 
was  not  able  to  abolish  this,  but  he  secured  the  colonies  that  mea- 
sure of  liberty  and  prosperity  which  they  continued  to  enjoy  until 
the  time  of  George  III.  With  some  intervals,  the  British  Empire 
was  governed  by  the  Whigs  for  three-quarters  of  a  century  after 
the  Revolution,  and  during  these  years  the  colonies  grew  and  pros- 
pered, though  in  different  degrees.  Whig  principles  were  diffused 
throughout  most  of  them,  especially  in  New  England;  but  else- 
where the  relics  of  the  old  Cavalier  settlers,  together  with  the 
natural  opposition  which  is  always  generated  in  free  states,  and 
the  influence  of  the  permanent  government  officials,  most  of  whom 
were  sent  out  from  England,  formed  a  contrary  element  of  a  Tory 
or  Royalist  character.  The  colonies  were  closely  connected  by 
means  of  their  trade  with  great  seaports  such  as  London  and  Bris- 
tol; in  these  cities  the  \\  big  party  was  always  in  the  ascendant,  so 
that  trade  and  the  colonies  were  always  mixed  up  in  the  English 
mind,  and  constituted  an  interest  hostile  to  that  of  the  Tory  or 
country  party,  who  wished  to  see  England  a  nation  balanced  on  its 
own  foundations,  and  independent  of  all  connections  beyond  the 
seas.     The  Tories  and  landed  gentry  were  jealous  of  the  wealth 


90  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1500-1775 

which  the  merchants  and  planters  drew  from  this  new  source;  and 
they  foresaw  the  time  when  this  weaUh,  together  with  that  derived 
from  tlie  home  industries  which  the  colonial  demand  stimulated 
and  fostered,  would  rival  their  own,  and  when  legislation  would 
have  as  its  first  object  the  promotion  of  industrial  wealth  and 
prosperit}'.  This  connection  of  the  colonies  with  the  Whig  party 
began  to  fail  after  the  great  war  of  1756,  and  after  the  Independ- 
ence of  America  it  disappeared  altogether.  During  these  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  we  see  the  old  colony  system  at  its  height; 
but  its  success  was  so  great  that  it  had  far  outgrown  the  ideas 
even  of  Cromwell  and  William  of  Orange.  When  the  produce  of 
a  single  settlement  equaled  the  revenue  of  a  kingdom,  and  the 
greater  part  of  this  produce  went  to  the  account  of  profit,  it  became 
impossible  to  regulate  the  colonies  through  official  channels,  and 
a  slight  hitch  in  the  administration  would  obviously  lead  to  a 
breach  of  the  old  connection.  This  is  what  actually  happened 
under  the  unfortunate  administrations  of  the  early  years  of  King 
George  IIL 


Chapter    VI 

THE    MISSIONS.     1500-1775 

THE  story  of  the  g-eneral  dealings  of  the  Europeans  with 
the  natives  whom  they  found  estabh'shed  in  America  is 
one  which  cannot  be  read  without  shame.  'During  fifty 
years  the  Spaniards  uniformly  conquered  and  enslaved  them;  put 
them  to  forced  labor  to  which  they  were  physically  unequal ;  and 
mercilessly  repressed  all  resistance ;  ^  but  the  chief  cause  of  the 
decline  in  native  population  was  doubtless  the  same  that  has  pro- 
duced like  results  whenever  and  wherever  primitive  and  civilized 
men  have  met  in  close  contact.  Thus  in  Hayti  the  number  of 
natives  sank  from  200,000  or  300,000  at  the  time  of  the  discovery 
to  200  fifty  years  later.  To  supply  this  waste,  the  Spanish  colo- 
nists kidnaped  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  islands,  espe- 
cially of  the  Bahamas.  Jamaica,  which  tlie  Spanish  historians 
declare  to  have  been  conquered  without  any  shedding  of  blood, 
contained  not  a  single  native  when  the  English  captured  it.  The 
conquest  of  jNIexico  by  Cortez,  according  to  Las  Casas,  cost 
4,000.000  of  lives.  The  same  process  went  on  everywhere,  and  at 
the  hands  of  every  European  nation.  In  Xorth  America  attempts 
were  made,  from  time  to  time,  to  convert  and  civilize  the  Indians, 
but  tliey  had  only  a  temporary  success.  The  French  and  English 
found  them  sometimes  useful  as  irregular  troops,  and  even  en- 
couraged them  in  their  condition  of  savagery.  Tliey  took  their 
lands,  as  they  were  wanted,  without  scruple,  and  nation  after  nation 
of  the  poor  natives  dwindled  away  and  perished.  It  has  been  the 
same  all  over  the  world:  in  South  Africa  and  Australia,  as  in 
America,  it  has  been  found  easier  to  exterminate  the  natives  than 
to  civilize  them. 

The  natives  of  Brazil  were  spared  the  cruelties  which  attended 
the  conquest  of  Spanisli  America.     Tlie  few  felons  who  were  first 

1  Tlie  estimate  of  Las  Casa^^.  tliat  in  these  years  40.000,000  native  Americans 
perished  hy  violence,  is  a  gfi'S^  exaggeration.  The  fiery  zeal  of  this  humaiu"- 
tarian  reformer  was  not  acconhnt;  to  knowledge  and  his  statistics  are  not 
trustworthy. 

91 


92  COL  0  N  I  E  S     OF     T  II  E     WORLD 

1500-1775 

cast  upon  the  shores  of  the  new  colony  were  too  weak  to  harm 
them;  and  the  Jews,  who  established  the  first  sugar  plantations, 
were  glad  to  treat  them  well,  so  as  to  induce  them  to  labor  for 
them.  Together  with  the  first  governor  of  Brazil  there  arrived  in 
1549  Emmanuel  de  Nobrega,  a  Jesuit  of  high  repute,  at  the  head 
of  a  number  of  the  order,  who  at  once  made  great  progress  in  con- 
verting the  natives.  Their  task  resembled  that  of  the  present  mis- 
sionaries in  the  Pacific  Islands;  they  baptized  them,  stopped  their 
feuds  and  cannibalism,  induced  them  to  come  to  church,  taught 
them  to  sing  in  Portuguese,  and  to  be  content  with  one  wife.  Da 
Costa,  the  second  governor,  built  a  large  college  for  the  Jesuits, 
and  they  rapidly  extended  their  missions  along  the  banks  of  the 
great  Brazilian  rivers.  But  here,  as  in  Europe,  and  in  Spanish 
America,  these  successes  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  clergy  in  the 
towns. 

The  Italian  explorer,  Sebastian  Cabot,  finding  the  English 
little  inclined  for  settling  in  America,  entered  the  Spanish  service. 
In  1526  he  sailed  round  the  coast  of  Brazil  as  far  as  the  mouth  of 
the  great  Plata  or  Silver  River,  where  he  built  a  fort,  which  was 
soon  destroyed  by  the  natives.  The  colony  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
planted  in  1535,  fared  little  better.  The  object  of  the  Spaniards 
here,  as  elsewhere,  was  to  secure  a  supply  of  the  precious  metals, 
with  which  the  country  was  supposed  to  abound.  In  this,  of 
course,  they  were  deceived ;  their  supplies  failed  them  from  home ; 
Buenos  Ayres  was  abandoned,  and  they  sailed  up  the  river  to  a 
m.ore  productive  country,  where  they  built  the  town  of  Assump- 
tion. Here  they  flourished  better;  they  were  strengthened  by  new 
arrivals  from  Europe,  and  they  established  friendly  relations  with 
the  Indians.  In  1580  they  were  able  to  reoccupy  Buenos  Ayres, 
which  had  been  deserted  forty  years.  This  country,  rich  in  metals 
and  in  all  animal  and  vegetable  products,  and  approached  by  the 
finest  navigable  river  in  the  world,  was  already  thickly  peopled.  It 
was  in  the  possession  of  many  wild  tribes  of  Indians,  of  whom  the 
most  intractable  were  the  Chiquitos  and  Guaranis,  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  river.  The  Jesuits  had  made  great  progress  in  civiliz- 
ing the  savages  of  Brazil,  and  when  Spain  took  possession,  in  1580, 
of  the  colonies  of  Portugal,  the  fathers  undertook  to  spread  Chris- 
tianity and  civilization  on  tliC  Plata  River.  The  Spanish  Govern- 
ment, to  do  it  justice,  was  tlioroughly  ashamed  of  the  cruelties  by 
which  the  conquest  of  America  had  been  attended ;  and  it  readily 


T  H  E     ]M  I  S  S  I  O  N  S  93 

1500-1775 

granted  what  the  fathers  proposed.  The  chief  scene  of  their  labors 
was  what  is  now  the  Republic  of  Paraguay,  where  they  founded 
and  maintained,  during-  150  years,  a  government  quite  unique  in 
the  history  of  the  world ;  but  their  missions  extended  to  every  part 
of  the  American  continent.  The  Jesuit  missions  were  imitated  by 
the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  but  neither  of  these  orders 
rivaled  them  either  in  the  extent  or  success  of  the  work  they 
undertook. 

The  Jesuits  early  obtained  the  privilege  of  trading  with  the 
natives  whom  they  visited  for  the  support  of  their  missions,  and 
they  had  many  warehouses  of  their  own  in  Europe.  Wherever 
they  went,  they  possessed  the  secret  of  acquiring  wealth,  influence, 
and  respect  for  their  order.  The  early  Jesuits  were  certainly  the 
cleverest  men  of  their  time.  They  were  at  once  ecclesiastics  and 
men  of  the  world ;  they  partook  of  the  advantages  of  all  the  cor- 
porate bodies  of  the  age — military,  ecclesiastical,  and  commercial; 
they  were  unencumbered  by  antiquated  notions,  and  their  missions 
had  already  had  great  success,  not  only  in  Brazil,  but  on  the  coasts 
of  Africa  and  iVsia.  .About  the  time  of  the  restoration  of  the 
colony  of  Buenos  Ayres  they  began  to  visit  the  Plata  River.  In 
1608,  when  New  England  ami  Xew  France  were  settled,  and  tlie 
West  Indies  were  becoming  known  to  the  future  planters,  they 
undertook  to  reduce  the  sa\'age  and  warlike  inhabitants  of  the 
Plata  River  to  civilization.  The  vices  and  cruelties  of  the  Euro- 
peans had  retarded  their  efforts  elsewhere;  and  their  ilrst  care  was 
to  isolate  the  scene  of  their  labors.  As  soon  as  their  efforts  had 
begun,  they  obtained  a  concession  from  the  King  of  Spain  to  the 
effect  that,  in  return  for  ll'e  yearly  payment  of  a  dollar  a  head  for 
each  Indian  tinder  their  gm-ernnient,  no  intruders  should  be  per- 
ntitted.  This  policv  was  directed  against  the  bishops  as  mtich  as 
against  lay  lan(lov\ners ;  and  it  is  certain  that,  wliereas  the  Churcli 
retarded  the  older  Spruiisli  cnli  niic^,  tb.c  Christianity  of  the  Jesuits 
was  a  great  ek-ment  in  ti'c  nc,\  uncs.  They  soon  won  the  confi- 
dence of  the  natives,  t.i  \\lio>o  >ui)<jrstitions,  following  their  fixed 
policy,  they  were  indulgent;  tribe  after  tribe  received  their  teach- 
ing; wherever  thcv  went,  the  lands  were  ctdtivated,  homely  manu- 
factures commenced,  houses,  cluirclies,  and  schools  built.  In  each 
district  tlie  inh.abitants  elected  a  magistrate,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  fathers.  Their  agrirnhnrc  and  manufactures  were  man- 
a^'ed  b\'  tlie  fathers,  who  sci  cac!i  man  and  woman  t(.)  their  task. 


94  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1500-1775 

and  stored  up  or  sold  the  produce.  The  system  of  the  missions 
nearly  realized  the  notions  of  people  who  have  wished  for  com- 
munism, where  every  man's  labor  belongs  to  the  community,  which 
in  turn  furnishes  each  member  with  the  means  of  living".  Under 
the  fathers  the  Indians  became  happy  and  thriving;  and  the  ad- 
vance of  their  labors  nearly  kept  pace  with  the  demand  for  their 
teaching  which  its  success  produced.  Two  at  a  time  these  apostles 
of  Europe  made  their  way,  between  1608  and  1640,  over  the  whole 
of  the  populous  land  of  Paraguay;  and  in  spite  of  the  determined 
opposition  of  the  Paulists,  they  established  themselves  also  on  the 
Uruguay. 

A  mining  colony  composed  of  adventurers  from  all  countries, 
owning  allegiance  to  Portugal,  had  been  formed  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Brazil,  upon  which  country  it  exercised  great  influence. 
Its  center  was  the  town  of  St.  Paul,  founded  by  the  Jesuits,  who 
for  some  time  enjoyed  great  influence  over  the  Paulists,  as  these 
mixed  colonists  were  called,  but  they  ([uarreled  with  the  fathers  on 
account  of  the  natives,  whom  they  kept  in  a  state  of  slaver}'.  The 
fathers  tried  in  vain  to  protect  the  Indians;  the  Paulists  made 
regular  expeditions  for  enslaving  them,  and  even  exported  them  to 
the  mines  of  Brazil,  where  there  was  a  great  demand  for  them, 
from  the  .\frican  trade  being  interrupted  through  the  Dutch  war. 
The  years  1 580-1640  were  a  flourishing  period  both  for  the  Jesuits 
of  the  Plata  River  and  for  the  Paulists;  and  when  the  Portuguese 
recovered  their  independence  the  Paulists  refused  to  submit  to 
them,  and  elected  a  king  from  among  themselves.  They  were  now 
a  numerous  and  warlike  community,  and  the  Jesuits  had  reason  to 
fear  the  destruction  of  their  power.  These  circumstances  gave  the 
final  character  to  tlie  government  of  the  Jesuits.  To  protect  them- 
selves against  the  Paulists,  they  now  fortified  their  frontiers  and 
supplied  themselves  with  firearms,  artillery,  and  military  stores. 
I'^w  things  prove  the  genius  of  tlie  Jesuits  more  completely  tlian 
the  military  superiority  thev  attained  over  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese. ^J^hc  missions  were  completely  formed  into  a  theocratic 
state;  tlie  fathers  were  the  generals,  merchants,  and  magistrates, 
and  the  Indians  stood  to  them  verv  much  in  the  relation  of  serfs, 
who  tilled  the  lands,  and  in  return  for  the  surplus  j^-oduce  were 
supplied  wit1i  fnod  and  clotln'ng.  Danger  pressed  on  them  from 
more  tlian  one  side.  Tlie  antliorities  of  t1ie  clunvh  were  a.lways 
ready  to  attack  tlic  Jesuits.     In  iG^i)  the}-  were  forced  to  take  up 


T  IT  E     :M  I  S  S  I  O  N  S  95 

1500-1775 

arms  against  their  bishop.  The  Spaniards  of  Buenos  Ayres  would 
not  help  them ;  the  Portuguese  threatened  them  from  Brazil ;  hos- 
tile tribes  made  war  upon  them,  and  they  were  often  obliged  to 
retrace  the  advances  which  they  had  made.  But  they  held  their 
ground,  although  the  Paulists  burned  their  great  college  and  put 
the  principal  to  death :  and  when  the  Paulists  in  the  end  submitted 
to  the  government  of  Lisbon,  they  assisted  the  efforts  of  Spain 
to  get  possession  of  St.  Sacrament  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Plata 
River  from  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Banda  Oriental  was  claimed  by 
both  nations ;  and  the  Portuguese,  who  held  it,  claimed  in  virtue 
of  the  possession  of  the  coast  the  interior  of  the  country  occupied 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  some  went  so  far  as  to  contend  that  the  mines 
of  Potosi  themselves  belonged  of  right  to  them.  By  way  of  re- 
pulsing their  pretensions,  the  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres  was 
ordered  to  drive  the  Portuguese  from  St.  Sacrament,  which  he 
effected  in  1680,  by  the  aid  of  3000  Indians  who  had  been  trained 
to  arms  by  the  Jesuits  of  Paraguay.  The  governor  of  Rio  Janeiro, 
knowing  nothing  of  the  military  force  which  the  Spaniards  com- 
manded, neglected  to  send  reinforcements,  and  the  troops  of  the 
Jesuits  achieved  a  complete  success,  though  against  regular  Euro- 
pean troops  and  artillery.  This  affair  greatly  raised  them  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Spanish  Government.  The  town  of  Buenos  Ayres  now 
wished  to  have  a  colony  of  these  defenders  established  in  its 
vicinity,  but  this  the  Jesuits  refused.  They  fought  the  battles  of 
the  King  of  Spain  in  time  of  need,  because  this  was  part  of  their 
bargain;  but  it  was  no  part  of  their  plan  to  furnish  other  parts  of 
the  colony  with  standing  garrisons.  But  when,  twenty  years  after- 
ward, the  Portuguese  again  threatened  the  Plata  settlements,  the 
Jesuits  brought  down  their  army  to  protect  Buenos  Ayres.  St. 
Sacrament  was  occupied  afresli  by  the  Portuguese  in  1703;  thev 
allied  themselves  with  the  unconverted  Indians,  whom  thev  trained 
and  furnished  with  fn-earms.  'l"hc  Jesuits  again  worsted  them  in 
the  field,  and  tc^ok  St.  Sacrament  a  second  time,  in  1705.  The 
valor  and  coolness  of  soldiers  commanded  by  a  priest  with  nothing 
in  his  hand  but  a  ])raycr-l)ook,  astonished  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese alike.  vSt.  Sacrament  was  again  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1762,  but  it  was  restored  in  the  following  year. 

The  years  1740-1750  may  be  taken  to  be  those  during  which 
the  power  of  the  Jesuits  in  Paraguay  was  at  its  height.  Their 
missions  included  at  this  time  300.000  frimilics.  and  they  could  put 


96  C  O  I.  0  N  I  E  S     OF     T  H  E     W  O  R  I.  D 

1500-1775 

into  the  field  as  many  as  6o,ooo  well-armed  and  trained  soldiers. 
The  missions  at  this  time  seem  to  have  presented  the  same  kind  of 
iiappy  half  civilization  which  is  now  seen  among  the  Sandwich 
Islanders.  As  wealth  was  not  allowed  to  accumulate,  no  excessive 
labor  was  necessary.  The  Indians  were  beginning  to  cultivate  a 
natural  taste  both  for  the  fine  and  the  useful  arts ;  and  numerous 
musicians,  painters,  and  handicraftsmen  of  all  sorts  had  settled 
among  them  from  Germany  and  Italy.  The  peace,  contentment, 
and  obedience  of  tb.eir  settlements  contrasted  advantageously  with 
those  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  their  vicinity.  Their  churches  were 
large,  and  richly  adorned,  even  by  comparison  with  the  wealthy 
foundations  of  Brazil  and  Peru.  They  had  a  code  of  laws  at  once 
humane  and  effectual ;  there  was  no  capital  punishment ;  and  the 
system  of  penalties  was  reinforced  by  a  system  of  rewards.  In  a 
state  of  things  presenting  so  strange  a  contrast  to  all  around,  it 
is  not  wonderful  that  the  Jesuits  should  be  anxious  to  avert  the 
possibility  of  change  or  degeneration.  With  this  view  all  inter- 
course with  strangers  was  rigorously  interdicted.  If  anyone 
arrived  in  the  territory  of  the  missions,  he  was  treated  for  a  day 
or  two  with  a  certain  degree  of  hospitality.  He  was  escorted  by 
the  fathers  from  one  mission  to  another,  until  he  was  out  of  the 
country,  and  never  suffered  to  hold  communication  with  the 
natives.  When  the  latter  were  taken  out  of  Paraguay  on  military 
service,  they  were  never  allowed  to  mix  with  their  neighbors,  and 
returned  to  their  country  as  unsophisticated  as  when  they  left  it. 
No  European  language  was  communicated  to  the  Indians.  The 
fathers  selected  a  particular  dialect  of  the  Indian  tongue  which 
they  endeavored  to  make  the  universal  language  of  the  missions; 
and  in  this  language  all  their  affairs  were  transacted. 

Wherever  the  Portuguese  vessels  had  sailed,  the  Jesuits  liad 
gone  with  them.  They  gained  a  settlement  in  Japan,  at  the  estab- 
lishment of  commercial  relations  between  that  country  and  Portu- 
gal ;  and  they  are  said  to  have  numbered  at  one  time  not  less  tlian 
400,000  converts  to  Christianity  among  the  Japanese.  Plowevcr 
this  may  be,  tliey  were  wealthy  and  powerful ;  their  political  power 
indeed  was  great  enough  to  excite  the  alarm  of  the  established  gov- 
ernment. Tlicir  pretensions  to  the  estates  of  a  rich  convert  were 
made  the  pretext  for  a  general  persecution;  and  as  they  were  strong 
enough  to  interpose  an  effectual  resistance,  the  Japanese  raised  a 
crusade  against  them.     After  a  great  battle  of  two  days'  duration, 


THEMISSIONS  97 

1500-1775 

the  Christians  were  defeated ;  the  persecution  ran  its  course  un- 
checked; and  by  1649  every  trace  of  Christianity  had  disappeared 
from  Japan.  In  China  they  were  for  a  while  more  fortunate. 
Their  scientific  attainments  were  here  fully  appreciated ;  they  were 
made  mandarins  of  the  first  class,  and  even  when  in  1722  their 
churches  were  destroyed,  and  they  were  forbidden  to  make  further 
conversions,  their  reputation  as  practical  mathematicians  and 
almanac-makers,  as  well  as  their  great  property,  rescued  them  from 
molestation  until  the  abolition  of  the  order.  Xavier's  college  at 
Goa  was  the  center  of  their  operations  in  India ;  and  the  famous 
Inquisition  of  that  town,  which  destroyed  so  many  wealthy 
Hindoos  and  appropriated  their  riches,  was  mainly  under  their 
direction.  In  1624  their  missions  had  spread  up  the  Ganges  as 
far  as  the  borders  of  Thibet.  But  the  Jesuits,  like  all  Christian 
missionaries,  had  far  more  success  among  the  wild  nations  of  the 
West  than  when  competing  with  the  ancient  religious  systems  of 
the  civilized  East.  In  1625  they  established  a  mission  in  Canada 
which  preached  Christianity  through  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  in- 
terior. In  the  sixteenth  century,  before  they  commenced  their  great 
independent  establishment  on  the  Plata  River,  they  had  converted 
vast  numbers  of  the  Indians  in  Peru.  Their  missions  grad- 
ually extended  on  both  sides  of  the  great  Amazon  River,  which 
connects  the  two  countries.  They  also  made  great  efforts  to  con- 
vert the  Indians  of  New  ^Mexico.  The  conquest  of  Chile  was  very 
much  due  to  the  success  of  their  preacliing  among  the  Araucanians. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  w(Trk  which  began  in  violent  and  cruel  con- 
quests was  gradually  advanced  on  all  sides  by  peaceful  conversions. 
The  same  state  which  afforded  the  Jesuits  the  opportunity  of 
their  development  commenced  tl.eir  ruin.  Hie  Portuguese  states- 
man. Pombal.  the  ablest  and  boldest  minister  of  his  age.  noticed 
with  jealousy  and  apprehension  their  growing  wealth  and  power; 
and  with  tlic  view  of  depriving  ilicm  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Amazon  River  he  made  a  law  forbidding  commerce  of  any  kind 
to  the  clergy.  Shortly  afterward  he  made  another,  making  it 
illegal  for  the  Order  of  Jesuits  to  hold  slaves.  These  laws  pressed 
only  on  the  Jesuits  of  Brazil:  but  in  i/^o  he  surrendered  to  Spain 
all  the  claims  of  Portugal  upon  St.  Sacrament,  and  took  in  ex- 
change a  ])ortion  of  the  mission  district  of  the  Uruguay.  The 
Jesuits  vainh-  opj)ose(l  to  iliis  proposition  all  tlie  inlluence  tlicv 
could  command  at   the  courts  of  Lisbon  and   Madrid:  and  in  the 


98  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1500-1775 

end  they  resisted  by  force  of  arms  the  demand  made  on  them  by 
Pombal  for  the  evacuation  of  their  colonies.  They  were  defeated ; 
and  the  issue  foreshadowed  the  time,  now  close  at  hand,  when 
the  order  succumbed  all  over  the  world  to  political  causes.  The 
genius  of  the  Jesuits  was  opposed  to  the  strong-  spirit  of  political 
reform  which  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  spread 
all  over  Europe,  and  naturally  extended  to  the  American  colonies. 
Their  resistance  had  excited  the  suspicion  of  Pombal.  A  trial  in 
France  relating  to  the  commercial  transactions  of  the  order  in 
Martinique  produced  a  scrutiny  of  their  books  and  constitutions, 
which  were  pronounced  to  be  so  dangerous  that  it  was  necessary 
to  suppress  them  in  that  country.  Shortly  after  this  the  King 
of  Portugal  was  assassinated;  suspicion  was  thrown  on  the 
Jesuits,  especially  on  Father  Malagrida,  and  they  were  summarily 
expelled  from  that  country  and  from  Brazil.  In  1767  they  were 
expelled  from  Spain  and  Naples.  Finally,  pressure  was  put  on 
the  Pope,  and  their  order  was  dissolved  in  1773.  The  effect 
of  their  proscription  upon  Paraguay  was  disastrous.  In  1768 
possession  of  their  settlements  was  taken  by  the  bitter  enemies 
of  the  founders,  the  officials  of  the  government  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  The  Indians  of  Paraguay,  parceled  out  into  new  prov- 
inces, rapidly  fell  into  the  same  condition  of  revolt  and  barbarism 
which  marked  their  neighbors,  and  from  which  the  missionary 
fathers  had  raised  them.  The  friars  of  other  religious  orders, 
who  succeeded  the  Jesuits  as  pastors,  ill  supplied  their  place.  The 
natives  had  no  political  organization  of  their  own;  and  it  seemed 
as  if  all  traces  of  the  Jesuit  government  were  blotted  out.  But 
in  the  end,  as  we  shall  shortly  see,  the  Jesuit  system  was  revived 
in  lay  hands,  and  the  peculiar  despotism  and  seclusion  which  marked 
the  rise  of  the  state  of  Paraguay  characterized  it  until  our  own 
times. 


Chapter    VII 


THE    MIDDLE    PERIOD    IN    COLONIAL    HISTORY 

1600-1750 

THE  middle  period  of  colonial  history,  including"  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth,  is 
marked  by  a  great  development  of  the  American  colonies, 
while  the  European  settlements  in  the  East  did  not  much  increase 
either  in  number  or  importance.  In  America  several  new  Euro- 
pean nations  were  gradually  formed ;  while  in  the  East  there  was 
nothing  of  the  kind,  as  the  settlements  were  mostly  in  the  hands  of 
commercial  companies,  whose  officers  always  returned  to  Europe, 
while  those  Europeans  who  remained  in  the  East  became  mixed 
with  the  natives.  But  the  same  system  of  administration  was 
applied  to  both ;  the  same  soldiers  fought  to  defend  the  colonies 
of  both  hemispheres,  and  the  same  merchants  often  competed  for 
their  trade.  The  settlements  of  the  French  and  English  in  North 
America  were  at  first  only  trading  stations,  and  as  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  increased  in  extent  and  population,  their  trade 
with  Europe  greatly  increased  in  importance.  Trade,  navigation, 
and  colonization  were  still  as  much  mixed  up  as  ever.  The  nation 
that  had  most  colonies  had  most  ships;  that  which  had  most  ships 
had  most  trade  and  most  sailors ;  that  which  had  niost  trade  had 
most  capital;  and  that  which  had  most  capital,  most  sailors,  and 
most  ships,  was  mistress  of  the  ocean,  which  had  now  become  tlic 
highway  of  the  world's  wealth.  Thus  we  see  that  tl:e  colonies  had 
destroyed  the  old  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  The  Empire  had 
long  lost  the  leading  position.  The  states  about  the  Alediterranean 
fell  into  a  lethargy,  and  all  the  enterprise  that  was  left  in  con- 
tinental Europe  passed  into  the  service  of  some  one  of  the  colonial 
powers.  When  the  hour  of  Spain  was  over,  the  Dutch  held  the 
first  place  (1600-1650)  :  the  policy  of  Cromwell  enabled  the  Eng- 
lish to  compete  with  them  (  [65()-i()S8)  ;  and  after  the  I^nglisli 
Rf\'olution  of  i68(S  llie  Dutch  and  l^nglisli  were  united  to  check 
the  pretensions  of  France.     The  inicrc-i-  ui  luirope  in  its  colonics 


100  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

became  stronger  every  year,  and  a  complicated  colonial  system 
was  formed,  which  stretched  over  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Perhaps  the  nearest  parallel  to  the  colony  system  as  it  was 
during  this  period  is  to  be  found  in  the  early  times  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  The  states  of  Greece  never  ruled  over  their  colonies  in 
Asia,  in  Italy,  or  in  Sicily.  Though  respect  and  affection  were 
kept  up,  more  or  less,  on  either  side,  they  never  went  beyond  a 
feeling  of  alliance  caused  by  community  of  blood  and  language, 
and  the  sense  of  the  same  destiny  toward  the  rest  of  the  world. 
But  the  conquests  of  Rome  were  treated  something  like  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  of  Spain.  In  Greece  a  state  which  had  founded  a 
colony  made  no  pretense  to  reign  over  it,  nor  did  it  claim  that  the 
policy  and  internal  economy  of  the  colony  ought  to  be  directed  by 
the  interests  of  the  parent  country,  so  as  to  lead  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  nations  from  its  soil,  and  of  their  commodities  from  its 
markets. 

Such  was  tlie  theory  maintained  and  quietly  acquiesced 
in,  all  over  the  Xew  World.  The  system  seemed  so  well 
established  that  people  not  merely  vrere  ignorant  of  its  im- 
peiiding  collapse,  but  doubted  of  the  success  of  any  attempt  to 
overturn  it,  and  the  nations  of  Europe  have  clung  to  what  is  left 
of  it  with  extraordinary  obstinacy.  We  may  describe  the  colonial 
system  in  few  words  by  saying  tlu^t  under  it  tlie  settlements  of 
Europeans  abroad  v."ere  held  to  be  not  nations,  but  proprietary 
domains,  or  farm.s,  v/orked  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother-country. 
A  similar  maxim  was  in  use  among  the  politicians  of  the  old 
Roman  Empire.  Just  as  a  great  landlord  might  have  several 
estates  in  different  cour.ties.  or  even  countries,  so  a  nation  was 
unrlersto'jd  to  people  its  >e\"eral  c^lunies  in  dift'erent  parts  of  the 
W'tIcI.  Tliey  n^.iylit  be  large,  or  .-•mall:  a  c<jntinent.  or  an  island: 
in]:a]>itcj  by  natives,  by  -eitler-.  <  .r  ])y  a  mixed  race:  one  and  all 
were  estate-  >ji  the  ni^.trier-cuiiiifry.  lainncd  fur  its  be::ient.  Th.e 
mother-country  laid  ti:ern  all  duwn  on  its  charts,  and  it  concerted 
schemes  for  tiieir  defense  and  extension.  Of  some  it  made  strong- 
holds t"  prc'tect  tb.e  re^t.  and  w!'iene\-er  war  was  declared,  the 
colonial  ships  became  privateers,  and  harassed  the  trade  of  the 
enemy.  In  thi^  way  France  used  tlie  island  of  Mauritius  and 
Bourbon  as  outpo>t>  <_■:  India,  an-]  St.  Ln.cie  and  Martinique  were 
chiefly  forts  for  tlie  <^';eftn-L-  <  f  the  nv  re  ]iro  luctive  coi'.'riie<  of  .Santo 
Doming"  an!  ( hn:;  hd.  ::-,^-.      .\ni.'::--  :hc    i:!:icrhsh   i-hiud^  Ainii^'ua 


'J' UK     r^IlDDLK     1»]:RT()1)  101 

1600 -1750 

and  Barbados  fulfilled  the  same  function.  The  mother-country, 
taking  post  upon  these  military  centers,  souglit  to  extend  its  bor- 
ders. It  conquered  wliere  it  could,  and  bought,  sold,  or  exchanged 
elsewhere,  as  was  deemed  most  for  its  profit.  Colonies  were 
valued  mainly  according  to  the  profit  derived  from  each.  To  im- 
port their  produce  cheaply,  and  to  encourage  them  to  a  large 
consumption  of  home  manufacltu'cs.  were  among  tlie  first  cares  of 
European  politicians;  and  tliey  secured  to  the  mother-country  the 
full  benefit  of  this  profitable  rclati()n  by  excluding  all  other  coun- 
tries from  participating  in  it.  11ms.  h'ngland  prevented  the  Xew 
Englanders  at  once  from  manufacturing  cotton  for  themselves  and 
from  importing  the  manufactured  cotton  of  France. 

Those  nations  which  had  possessions  of  their  own  beyond  sea, 
or  a  trade  with  those  of  other  nations,  fpiickly  advanced  in  wealth 
and  in  influence  at  home.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  showed  the  English 
that  the  wealth  and  power  of  Spain  rested  entirely  on  her  colonial 
possessions,  and  that  of  Holland  on  her  commercial  activity;  and 
during  the  years  that  followed  all  the  seagoing  nations  aimed,  as 
we  have  seen,  at  having  possessions  abroad,  and  at  keeping  the 
trade  with  these  in  their  own  hands.  First  IFjlland.  and  then  Eng- 
land, became  greatly  enriched,  the  former  mainly  through  the 
trade  of  the  East  India  Islands,  the  latter  through  that  of  the  West 
Indies,  and  a  social  progress  began  which  soon  left  the  old  states 
of  Continental  Europe  far  behind.  We  may  trace  this  even  in  the 
outward  aspect  of  the  European  tt)\vns.  ]\lost  of  the  old  towns  of 
Germany  and  Italy,  for  instance,  seem  to  ha\e  changed  very  little 
between  the  fifteer.th  or  sixteentli  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
present  one;  but  in  Holland  an.d  England,  and  in  the  commercial 
towns  of  h^rance  and  Spain,  wc  can  see  tliat  wealth  was  continually 
pouring  into  the  conntr}'.  11ic  le-ser  maritime  naticMis  were  also 
drawn  into  the  stream  of  c<riiimerce.  A  Danish  ICast  India  Com- 
pany was  formed  in  1618,  and  llie  settlement  of  11-anquebar  was 
obtained.  The  Company  failed  ;  but  another  was  formed,  which 
lasted  until  1729.  11ic  Swedish  F.ast  India  Company,  though  it 
had  no  settlement  of  its  own.  was  more  successful  than  the  Danish. 
Its  chief  trade  was  with  China.  In  1^38  a  Swedish  settlement  was 
formed  on  the  banks  of  tlie  l)eiaw;ire  in  North  America,  but  the 
Dutch  conquered  it  in  1^)56.  Denmark  and  Sweden  took  Imt  little 
share  in  colonization,  but  they  did  iK^t  remain  so  entirelv  out  of  the 
field  as  the  feudal  powers  of  (ierniany  and  Russia.     It  was  the  rise 


102  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

of  England  and  Holland  which  induced  Peter  the  Great  to  try  to 
raise  his  country  to  the  level  of  the  times;  and  thus  we  see  that  the 
colonies  and  their  trade  are  connected  with  the  growth  of  the 
great  power  which  overshadows  Asia  from  the  north.  Russia  soon 
traded  to  China  by  means  of  a  mercantile  company,  and  later  on 
she  acquired  a  large  tract  in  North  America  for  carrying  on  the 
fur  trade. 

The  system  of  commercial  companies  grew  naturally  out  of 
the  establishment  of  commercial  relations  between  the  hostile  and 
jealous  governments  of  mediaeval  Europe.  War  and  commerce 
are  only  two  means  of  gaining  the  same  end,  and  a  state  of  com- 
merce generally  succeeds  a  state  of  war.  When  one  government  had 
gained  from  another  advantageous  terms  of  trade,  it  was  always 
tempted  to  anticipate  the  benefit  by  bargaining  away  its  right  to  a 
body  of  adventurers,  who  were  always  far  readier  than  private 
individuals  to  pay  a  good  sum  for  commercial  privileges,  as  well 
as  better  able  to  pay  the  expenses  and  stand  the  risk  which  attended 
them.  These  were  held  to  be  so  great  that  nothing  short  of  a  total 
monopoly  was  sufficient  to  recompense  them.  A  great  change  was 
coming  about  in  the  social  aspect  of  commerce.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  first  projected  the  colonization  of  America,  had  a 
monopoly  of  wine  in  England ;  and  such  men  had  much  to  do  with 
the  getting  up  of  companies.  However  beneficial  these  companies 
may  liave  been  in  the  beginnings  of  colonies,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  stunted  their  growth  by  depriving  the  European  con- 
sumer of  the  advantages  of  competition.  Nor  was  the  system 
itself  calculated  to  last  very  long.  Out  of  fifty-eight  exclusive  com- 
panies, forty-six  failed  completely,  and  eight  were  suppressed  or 
surrendered  their  charters.  Tb.e  English  East  India  Company 
was  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  only  example  of 
brilliant  success:  the  Dutch  Company  was  in  its  decline;  the  Span- 
ish Philippine  Company  was  in  a  condition  of  doubtful  prosperity, 
and  the  numerous  companies  with  which  France  had  embarrassed 
the  rise  of  Canada,  of  Louisiana,  and  of  Santo  Domingo  had  all  been 
signal  failures.  Tlie  companies  of  Denmark,  and  those  of  the  ports 
of  Emden  and  Ostend,  had  the  same  fate.  And  Portugal,  which 
never  allowed  any  society  of  traders  to  interfere  between  its  gov- 
ernment and  its  colonies,  until  1756,  when  Pombal,  seduced  by 
French  examples,  cstc'iblished  one  for  Brazil,  was  an  example  of 
a  nation  vastlv  enriched  bv  its  colonies  without  the  aid  of  exclu- 


THE     MIDDLE     PERIOD  103 

1600-1750 

sive  companies.  The  abolition  of  the  companies  of  St.  Domingo, 
in  1722,  was  for  France  the  beginning  of  a  blaze  of  colonial  pros- 
perity which  astonished  Tun'ope,  By  the  time  when  the  system  of 
completely  subjecting  each  set  of  colonies,  commercially  and 
politically,  to  the  mother-country  was  at  its  height,  tlie  system  of 
exclusive  companies  was  far  advanced  in  its  decline. 

The  most  conspicuous  example  of  the  failure  of  a  great  com- 
mercial company  was  one  formed  in  England  in  the  time  of  Queen 
Anne  to  carry  on  a  trade  with  the  South  Sea  countries,  that  is,  with 
Spanish  America  in  general  and  the  Pacific  Islands,  The  great 
expectations  formed  of  this  company  were  artfully  fostered  by  its 
promoters,  and  its  shares  at  one  time  rose  to  eight  times  their 
original  value.  But  it  proved  the  ruin  of  everyone  who  trusted 
in  it,  for  it  never  had  any  trade  worth  mentioning.  The  best  of 
the  trades  with  New  Spain  was  thought  to  be  the  slave  trade;  and 
the  English  deprived  the  French  company  of  the  contract  under 
which  this  was  carried  on.  called  the  "  Assiento,"  and  put  it  in  the 
hands  of  the  South  Sea  Company ;  but  this  trade  produced  no  great 
returns.  For  some  years  this  company  sent  ;m  annual  ship  for 
general  trade  to  Xew  Spain,  and  they  engaged  largely  in  tlie 
whale-fishery:  but  they  lost  1)y  everything,  and  in  the  end  they 
ceased  to  trade  altogether,  and  the  capital  of  the  company  was 
converted  into  annuity  stock. 

Of  all  colonial  systems  tlie  Spanisli  was  the  most  grotesque 
and  antiquated.  It  limited  the  trade  of  America  not  only  to  its 
own  subjects,  but  to  a  single  place  in  its  territory.  Seville  was  at 
first  the  only  port  of  enibarcalifMi  for  the  Indies;  I)ut  the  incon- 
veniences of  its  situation  caused  the  privilege  to  be  extended  to 
Cadiz,  v^pain  only  saw  too  late  tliat  by  opening  all  her  ])orts  to  the 
American  trade  slie  miglit  effectually  profit  by  her  colonial  posses- 
si(^)ns.  Her  origiii.-il  s\-stcni  was  libstinatel}'  adhered  to  for  two  liun- 
di'cd  years,  the  cori>ei;ncncc  being  ih;it  she  was  in  the  end  weai<cncd 
rather  than  strcngilu'ncd  by  her  American  possessions,  that  her 
colony  trade  was  ci)n'.narati\Ciy  tlie  smallest  and  least  remunerative 
ill  lutropo.  and  that  .-'ac  ch;c;1v  i'nltilled  the  functiou  (_)f  bringing 
silver  tt)  ban-ope  lor  ilic  irso  of  the  traders  of  other  nations.  Tlie 
monopoly  of  Cadiz  luid  Seville  \\;is  abolished  in  1778,  and  by  ten 
years  afterward  her  irii]-)i)rtatioii>  from  America  v^'cre  iricreased 
more  tiian  tonfold.  I'nt  in  tlie  nicmtinia.  a.  conipa.ritix'el}'  free  .-'y.-'- 
tein  in  the  l'aagli>l!  tMf'incs  liad  raised  up  a  \-ast  nation  by  lici'  side; 


104  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

Florida  was  added  to  English  America  in  1763;  and  it  was  not 
difficult  to  foresee  the  annexation  of  New  Mexico,  New  Navarre, 
and  California.  Spanish  America  presented  a  group  of  nations 
widely  scattered  and  greatly  differing  in  their  composition.  In 
Mexico,  and  still  more  in  Peru,  the  natives  were  far  more  numer- 
ous than  the  Europeans,  and  the  traditions  of  the  cruel  conquest 
which  subjected  them  to  their  European  masters  subsisted  still 
unsoftened.  The  Peruvians  had  never  been  thoroughly  subdued; 
and  strangely  enough  they  were  allowed  to  keep  an  annual  festival 
which  revived  the  memory  of  their  independence.  The  Spanish 
grandees  seldom  lived  far  away  from  the  town,  as  in  Central  Amer- 
ica they  seldom  lived  far  from  the  seashore  or  the  banks  of  the 
gold-bearing  rivers,  and  the  natives  lived  alone  and  unmolested, 
provided  that  they  paid  their  tax  regularly.  In  Central  America. 
Chile,  and  the  Plata  River  settlements,  they  were  mixed  with  a 
larger  proportion  of  Europeans ;  but  everywhere  an  odious  dis- 
tinction was  maintained  between  the  Creoles,  or  Americans  born, 
whether  of  pure  or  mixed  race,  and  the  officials  sent  out  by  the 
Spanish  Government.  In  this  way  the  elements  of  a  future  struggle 
for  independence  had  long  been  preparing.  The  only  political 
change  in  two  hundred  years  consisted  in  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  viceroyalties.  Spanish  America  had  been  originally  divided 
into  those  of  Mexico  and  Peru:  but  in  1739  Terra  Firma,  as  the 
southern  continent  north  of  Guiana  was  called  by  the  navigators 
who  first  discovered  it,  together  with  the  north  Peruvian  province 
of  Quito,  were  erected  into  a  separate  viceroyalty  by  the  name 
of  New  Grenada.  After  the  abolition  of  the  Jesuit  government 
in  Paraguay  and  California,  these  parts  were  provided  for  by  tlie 
establishment  of  a  fourth  viceroyaltv  of  the  Plata  River  in  1176. 
and  by  sending  a  separate  go\-ern()r,  but  without  the  rank  and  state 
of  a  viceroy,  tn  \e\v  Mexico.  Tlic  maxims  of  the  colony  system 
were  rigorously  carried  out.  The  Peruvians  were  not  allowed  to 
cultivate  tlie  ()!i\x'  and  tlie  vine,  that  tlic  oil  and  wine  of  Spain 
might  have  a  wider  riiarket;  pepper  was  proliiljitcd  in  Porto  Rico, 
and  hemp  and  llax  were  exterminated  in  Chile.  The  expulsion 
of  the  Aloriscocs  or  Clnastianized  Moors  from  Spain  in  161 1  began 
the  ruin  of  the  real  ]:)rosperity  of  Spain.  A  million  of  the  most 
industrious  of  the  inhabitants  were  driven  into  exile:  and  Spain,  so 
far  as  regarded  her  colony  trade,  became  merely  the  factor  nf  f/ihcr 
nations.      As  S])ain  dcchncd  in  hluropc.  lier  insular  [josjc-sjiuns  fell 


T  II  K     M  I  I)  D  T.  i:     r  E  11  I  0  I)  105 

1600-1750 

into  the  hands  of  her  rivals,  and  her  inabih'ty  to  defend  even  those 
on  the  mainland  against  other  powers  became  clear.  Anson  had, 
during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  proved  the  feasibility 
of  an  English  conquest  of  I^eru.  Portugal,  with  all  that  belonged 
to  it,  was  by  this  time  regarded  as  a  mere  dependency  of  England; 
and  there  was  a  general  belief  that  l^ngiand  would  in  the  end 
absorb  all  America.  Tlic  luigiisli  were  thoroughly  exasperated 
with  the  Spaniards:  many  of  the  mercantile  party  wished  to  see 
the  attempt  made,  and  the  jealousies  and  threats  of  France  some- 
times drove  England  in  tlie  direction  uf  making  it.  But  a  better 
alternative  has  been  found ;  tliough  if  we  substitute  ff)r  England 
the  English  political  system,  we  shall  see  in  the  end  that  the  com- 
mon forecast  was  not  very  wide  of  the  mark. 

Brazil  and  the  English  Cf)lonies  alike  profited  by  the  neglect 
of  the  mother  countries.  Brazil,  though  the  richest,  most  exten- 
sive, and  most  promising  of  all  the  European  settlements,  had  ad- 
vanced but  slow'ly,  in  comparis(jn  with  the  English  colonics,  since 
the  Dutch  evacuated  it  in  1654.  The  abundant  supply  of  pro- 
visions 3'ielded  by  the  missions  stimulated  the  plantations;  and 
by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  exports  of  sugar  and 
tobacco  were  greater  than  ever.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
south  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  prosperity  of  Brazil,  and  raised 
into  importance  the  port  of  Rio  Janeirc^  which  became  the  resi- 
dence of  the  viceroy,  and  the  place  where  tlic  gold  was  collected 
and  coined.  The  governor,  appointed  for  iive  years,  w'as  usually 
a  soldier  of  some  repute.  1 1  is  chief  business  was  to  keep  the 
Europeans  and  natives  in  order,  and  to  protect  the  coast  against 
invasion,  and  his  post  was  often  a  stepping-stone  to  that  of  \'ice- 
roy  of  India.  About  1685  the  Portuguese  Government  first  began 
to  think  of  systematically  improving  their  rich  colony.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  tlie  governors  of  Brazil  was  John  of  Lan- 
caster (1694-1702).  lie  was  said  to  be  of  nn-al  luiglish  descent; 
he  improved  the  revenues,  built  several  nev\'  towns,  and  reduced 
the  Alaroon  state  of  Palmares,  which  must  have  numbered  20,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  in  his  time  that  the  g(^ld  of  the  south  was 
discovered,  and  it  was  by  liim  that  the  province  of  JMinas  Geraes 
was  organized.  The  Portuguese  allowed  the  mestizos,  or  half- 
breeds,  to  hold  lands  in  their  new  townships.  In  17 10  the  colony 
of  Recif  was  founded.  The  municipal  rights  which  it  obtained 
were  thought  to  be  an  encroachment  on  the  privileges  of   Per- 


106  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

nambuco.  The  inhabitants  of  that  town  rose  in  arms  and  besieged 
Recif;  and  the  insurrection  was  only  quelled  with  the  aid  of  a 
fleet  from  Europe.  The  Methuen  treaty  (1703)  placed  Portugal 
completely  on  the  side  of  England,  and  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  two  expeditions  (1710,  171 1)  were  dispatched  by  Louis 
XIV.  to  attack  Brazil.  The  first  was  unsuccessful,  but  in  the  next 
Rio  Janeiro  was  taken,  and  the  French  carried  off  a  rich  booty. 
In  1728  diamonds  were  discovered,  and  as  all  these  treasures  were 
imported  into  Portugal  under  the  protection  of  England  and  her 
allies,  the  mother-country,  unlike  Spain,  reaped  the  full  benefit 
of  them.  The  years  which  followed  were  marked  by  a  great 
extension  of  mines,  missions,  and  settlements,  and  in  1750  the 
boundaries  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  possessions  were  settled 
by  a  treaty.  The  numerous  insurrections  of  the  blacks  and  Indians 
prove  the  cruelty  which  accompanied  the  rise  of  Brazilian  pros- 
perity. The  success  of  the  struggle  for  independence  in  English 
America  probably  encouraged  the  insurrection  of  ]\Iinas  Geraes 
which  broke  out  in  1789.  It  was  secretly  favored  by  the  mer- 
chants of  Rio;  but  the  government  suppressed  it  without  much 
difficulty,  and  the  leader,  a  cavalry  officer  named  Xavier,  was  exe- 
cuted at  Villa  Rica.  But  it  was  impossible  to  control  the  desire 
for  independence,  and  fortunately  opportunities  were  successively 
afforded  for  gaining  it  in  a  more  peaceful  way  than  happened  in 
Spanish  America.  On  the  occasion  of  the  terrible  earthquake  of 
Lisbon  in  1755,  Pombal  nearly  executed  the  project  of  bodily  trans- 
ferring the  court  and  government  of  Portugal  to  its  great  depen- 
dency.    He  anticipated  actual  events  by  only  sixty  years. 

French  America  was  quickly  eclipsed  in  importance  by  New 
England.  For  many  years  neither  Acadia  nor  Quebec  were  more 
than  a  few  temporary  settlements  made  by  fishermen  and  traders, 
with  some  forts  for  their  protection,  and  backed,  in  the  case  of 
Canada,  by  tialf-cultivated  tracts  of  land  in  the  hands  of  poor 
seigneurs  aivl  tlicir  peasants,  living  in  ignorance  and  isolation  from 
tlic  rest  of  tiic  world.  The  Jesuits  were  hard  at  work  among  the 
Indians;  but  under  Richelieu's  company  the  colony  made  no  per- 
ccijiiblc  aflvance.  In  1662  the  company  resigned  its  charter;  the 
colony  was  thenceforth  placed  under  a  governor  and  council 
nominated  by  the  king;  and  it  began  to  increase  and  prosper. 
Al)out  1(^)85  the  I'rench  settlers  began  to  encroach  on  New  Eng- 
land; and  bef(jre  tlie  end  of  the  centurv  the  Canadians  had  made 


THE     MIDDLP:     period  107 

1600-1750 

a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the  ^Mississippi.  By  tlic  Pc^ice  of 
Utrecht,  Acadia,  with  its  16,000  French  inliabitants,  was  ceded 
to  England ;  but  the  efforts  of  tlie  P'rench  to  occupy  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  seemed  to  be  only  the  more  determined.  The  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession  was  marked  in  America  by  the  capture  of 
Louisburg  (1745);  but  it  was  restored  at  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  During  these  years  tlie  English  colonies  were  greatly 
increasing;  and  the  French,  foreseeing  the  struggle  which  was  im- 
pending, took  measures  for  defending  the  frontier  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  They  strengthened  the  fortifications  of  Niagara,  they  built 
large  vessels  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  they  organized  the  Canadian 
militia.  This  national  rivalry  between  the  north  and  south  sides 
of  the  great  American  lakes  has  subsisted  unchanged  until  our  own 
times.  During  this  period  the  inhabitants  of  New  France  became 
a  nation,  as  they  fondly  termed  themselves.  La  Nation  Canadicnnc. 
A  native  of  Canada  was  called  a  Jiabitanf,  and  nowhere  in  the 
New  World  has  so  intense  a  national  feeling  been  developed.  It 
has  extended  to  the  English  settlements  in  Upper  Canada,  though 
here,  of  course,  it  has  a  difl^erent  foundation. 

The  growth  of  the  Englisli  colonies  between  the  Revolution 
of  1688,  which  secured  them  a  degree  of  liberty  enjoyed  by  those 
of  no  other  nation,  and  the  disputes  which  led  to  independence 
(1767-1775)  has  no  parallel  in  history.  These  colonies  differed 
much  in  their  forms  of  government.  The  charter  governments, 
such  as  the  New  England  States,  in  which  the  governor  was  chosen 
annually  by  popular  election,^  and  the  proprietary  governments  ot 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  had  no  dependence  on  the  executive 
government  of  England,  and  they  transacted  their  business  with 
it  through  agents  of  their  own,  resident  in  England.  The  Crown 
colonies  were  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  including  the  island  of 
that  name,  and  the  continent  between  the  River  St.  John  and  Hud- 
son Straits;  Nova  vScotia ;  New  Hampshire,  New  York,  New 
Jersev,  \^irginia.  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  the 
Bahamas,  important  only  through  the  little  settlement  of  New 
Providence,  ('"lorida  fell  to  l-'.ngland  in  the  peace  of  1763,  but  was 
restored  to  Spain  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1783.  The  influence 
of  the  growth  of  the  coKMiies  on  the  trade  and  manufactures 
of    England    had    been    enorinons.     The   exports    to    the    colonies 

1  In   Massachiisftts,   ai'h-r   1602,  the  sroveninr  was  appointed   by  the  Crown. 
In  Rhode  Ishmd  and  Connecticut  he  was  elected  by  the  legishitnre. 


108  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

in  1775  were  equal  to  the  whole  export  trade  of  England,  in- 
cluding the  colonies,  in  the  first  year  of  the  century ;  while  the 
growth  of  individual  settlements  may  be  estimated  by  that  of 
Pennsylvania,  which  .  in  1772  took  in  nearly  fifty  times  the 
amount  of  British  imports  v.hich  it  consumed  in  1704.  It  was 
impossible  that  liiis  immense  increase  should  not  greatly  strain 
the  Act  of  Xavigation,  originally  only  intended  to  gain  for  Eng- 
lish ships  the  carrying-trade  of  the  West  Indies.  This  Act  was, 
in  fact,  greatly  relieved  in  some  points,  and  not  observed  at  all  in 
others.  We  have  seen  how  the  contraband  trade  carried  on  be- 
tween the  English  colonies  and  the  French  and  Dutcli  sugar  islands 
contributed  to  depress  the  sugar  trade  of  the  English  West  Indies. 
The  existence  of  this  trade  was  well  known  to  the  Piritish  Gov- 
ernment, but  it  vras  not  easy  to  decide  how  to  deal  with  it.  The 
armaments  which  had  been  sent  out  from  England,  Flolland,  and 
France  against  the  buccaneers  had  proved  the  impossibility  of 
suppressing  by  force  any  trade  which  was  tolerated  by  the  colo- 
nists themselves.  The  North  .American  colonies  produced  far 
more  for  export  than  Great  Britain  or  her  islands  could  possibly 
consume,  nor  was  Great  Britain  able  to  supply  all  the  commercial 
demands  of  British  America.  Common  sense  would  have  said 
that  the  colonists  should  be  allowed  to  trade  with  tlieir  neighbors 
for  themselves;  but  this  would  have  been  to  destroy  the  Naviga- 
tion Act.  whicli  was  regarded  as  the  safeguard  of  English  trade 
and  navigation.  Tlie  difficulty  was  solved  by  the  invention  of 
a  new  system  of  taxation.  A  high  duty  was  laid  on  all  foreign 
sugar,  rum,  and  molasses  imported  into  British  colonies;  while 
the  English  sugar  islands  were  allowed  to  send  those  commodities 
direct  to  other  parts  of  Europe.  Other  privileges  were  granted  to 
the  colonies  from  time  to  time,  in  exchange  for  other  duties ;  and 
in  this  way  the  competence  of  the  British  Parliament  to  lay  taxes 
upon  the  colonies  was  first  recognized. 

We  Iiave  seen  how  Penn  encouraged  persons  of  all  nations 
and  religious  persuasions  to  settle  in  America.  In  this  he  followed 
the  example  of  tlic  Dutcli:  and  he  established  for  North  Americ;i 
a  principle  whicli  ha-  wav  been  extended  to  the  whole  of  it,  and 
indeed  to  most  r<f  the  civilized  world.  English  America  had 
become  celebrated  throughout  Europe  as  a  refuge  from  persecu- 
tion. The  advantages  of  the  colonial  life  soon  became  apparent. 
Svvarms  (jf  (Germans  and  Swiss  settled  there,  attracted  by  the  pros- 


THE     MIDDLE     PERIOD  109 

1600-1750 

perity  of  their  kinsmen.  Tlie  overflow  of  the  peasant  population 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland  soon  regularly  poured  thither.  In  1729 
over  6000  immigrants  came  to  Pennsylvania  alone,  four-fifths  of 
whom  were  Irish.  Two  thousand  Irish  sailed  every  year  from 
Belfast,  and  by  1740  this  port  as  well  as  Derry  had  a  large  and 
regular  passenger  trade.  New  York  was  the  favorite  destination 
of  the  Irish,  while  the  Germans  of  the  Palatinate,  Wurtemburg, 
and  Switzerland  found  their  way  in  great  numbers  to  Philadelphia. 
Above  twenty  ships  sailed  for  this  port  laden  with  German  emi- 
grants every  year,  long  before  the  War  of  Independence;  and  thus 
English  America  drained  Europe  of  some  of  its  most  adventurous 
and  its  hardiest  elements.  Labor  was  eagerly  demanded  in  the  new 
lands,  and  kidnapers  in  the  pay  of  English  and  Dutch  merchants 
spread  all  over  Europe,  persuading  the  poor  peasantn.',  groaning 
under  the  last  years  of  continental  feudalism,  to  quit  the  soil  to 
which  they  were  bound  fen-  tlic  land  of  wealth  and  liberty.  On 
their  arrival  they  were  compelled  to  bargain  themselves  away  for 
a  certain  number  of  years,  usually  four.  Pennsylvania,  where 
land  was  to  be  had  cheapest,  v;as  tlie  great  inlet  of  foreigners,  and 
as  time  went  on  the  German  immigrants  outnumbered  the  English 
and  Irish  in  the  proportion  of  four  to  one.  The  latter  did  not, 
in  general,  thrive  so  well  as  the  more  frugal  and  industrious  Ger- 
mans, and  sought  their  fortunes  further  south  in  Carolina  and 
Georgia.  The  latter  colony,  settled  on  a  waste  part  of  Carolina 
in  1732,  as  an  outpost  against  the  attacks  of  Erancc  and  Spain 
aided  by  the  hostile  tribes  of  Indians,  was  settled  on  conditions 
which,  however  laudable  in  tlicmselves.  threw  it  back  in  the  race 
of  progress.  No  negroes  were  permitted ;  the  importation  of  rum 
from  the  West  Indies  was  forljidden;  no  immigrant  received  more 
than  twenty-live  acres  of  land:  and  it  v\-as  attempted  to  keep  it 
in  the  family  l)y  making  it  inlieritaiyic  only  by  the  >cttlcr's  male 
issue.  None  of  these  en;icuncnts  wcM^kcd  well :  the\'  were  abolisliecl, 
and  the  colony  was  ])lace(l  on  a  :^in'iilar  fooling  to  Sontli  Carijlin.a. 
No  (jther  country,  execj)t  llie  Dntcli  colony  at  tb.e  Caj)e,  affords 
(luring  the  eighteenth  ccntur}-  the  spectacle  of  thousands  of  agri- 
cultural laborers  leaxing  Ivuropo,  taking  possession  of  lands  bevond 
sea,  and  cultivating  them  for  tiieniseK'cs.  I'he  horrs,  or  peasants. 
emigrated  in  great  n.nnibcr.-;  to  the  Cape,  where  the  Dutch  East 
India  Coniii::n\-  readily  granic<l  ihcm  a  certain  (juantit\-  of  laufl, 
lb.ou''ii  it  allow '.■(}  ihcni  n- 1  n  'ii'io"i  11;";'.  !k"'X'S  whatever. 


110  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

Though  the  planters  mainly  relied  on  negro  labor,  the  spirit 
of  adventure,  poverty  and  failure  at  home,  and  the  system  of  trans- 
porting debtors  and  criminals,  replenished  the  West  Indies  with 
a  class  of  laborers  who  often  raised  themselves  to  be  small  planters 
and  proprietors.  Here  too  English  policy  permitted  the  establish- 
ment of  such  forms  of  government  as  might  be  suitable  to  each 
island,  without  any  care  for  uniformity,  or  for  any  stricter  con- 
nection with  the  mother-country  than  was  already  secured  by  the 
Navigation  Acts.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence the  English  West  Indies  were  divided  into  four  governments : 
I.  The  Barbados;  2.  The  Windward  Islands,  which  included 
Grenada,  the  Grenadines,  and  Tobago;  3.  The  Leeward  Islands, 
including  Antigua,  Montserrat,  Nevis,  St.  Christopher,  Anguilla, 
Tortola,  together  with  several  of  the  adjoining  Virgin  group; 
4.  Jamaica.  Each  of  these  governments  enjoyed  the  same  de- 
gree of  liberty  as  the  ro3'al  or  provincial  governments  of  the 
American  continent.  The  governor  had  his  lieutenant  governor 
and  his  council,  and  the  people  had  their  own  assemblies,  their 
own  law-courts.  They  made  their  own  statute  laws,  taking  that 
of  England  as  a  basis ;  and  this  liberty  of  legislation  often  led  to 
great  confusion.  In  the  Leeward  Islands,  for  instance,  the  assem- 
bly, sitting  sometimes  at  Nevis  and  sometimes  at  Antigua,  would 
pass  a  law  which  affected  all  the  islands ;  but  it  often  made  special 
laws  for  some  one  or  more  of  them,  just  as  the  British  Parlia- 
ment now  often  makes  special  laws  for  England  and  for  Ireland. 
Again,  in  some  colonies  the  powers  vested  in  the  governor  were 
very  limited,  and  nothing  of  importance  could  be  done  without 
a  certain  number  of  his  council ;  but  the  administration  in  these, 
as  in  other  cases  where  personal  responsibility  is  lessened,  was  not 
always  the  best.  The  Church  of  England  was  established  in  many 
of  these  islands  by  Acts  of  Assembly,  as  in  the  southern  colonies  of 
tlie  continent ;  but  there  were  no  bishops.  The  governor  presented 
to  vacant  benefices,  and  exercised  the  functions  of  ecclesiastical 
judges  at  home.  The  clergy  were  sometimes  paid  by  a  certain 
quantity  of  sugar,  as  in  Virginia  they  received  their  stipends  in 
tobacco.  Each  assembly  government  regulated  the  trade  of  its 
own  shipping,  amcmnting  sometimes  to  400  or  500  sail.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  functions  of  the  legislative  assemblies  were  likely 
to  become  \ery  extensive  and  complicated.  In  the  Leeward  Islands 
the  business  of  the  assembly  became  so  heavy  that  a  separate  assem- 


THE     MIDDLE     PERIOD  111 

1600-1750 

bly  was  established  for  each  of  the  islands  of  St.  Christopher,  Xcvis. 
Montserrat  and  Antigua.  The  details  of  the  government  enjoyed 
by  these  small  but  wealthy  colonies  arc  important,  because  they 
illustrate  the  contrast  between  those  of  I'Ingland  and  of  other  na- 
tions, and  because  they  were  afterward  repeated  on  a  greater  scale 
in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa.  The  West  India 
governments  were  chiefly  occupied  with  the  problem  of  keeping 
the  negroes,  who  everywhere  far  outnumbered  the  whites,  in 
proper  order  and  subjection.  They  made  countless  lavv's  for  tliis 
purpose,  but  the  negroes  often  broke  out  in  rebellion,  which  was 
always  cruelly  suppressed.  The  most  flourishing  period  of  the 
British  West  Indies,  though  not  their  greatest  extent  and  popu- 
lation, had  been  reached  in  the  beginning  of  the  eigliteenth  cen- 
tury. With  the  decline  of  white  labor,  and  the  exclusive  use  of 
that  of  negroes,  their  comparative  produce  declined.  The  pretense 
that  the  Antilles  cannot  be  cultivated  without  negroes  or  coolies 
is  refuted  by  plain  facts.  The  white  Creoles  of  Anguilla  and  Tor- 
tola,  and  the  Ten  x^cre  men  of  Barbados,  were  instances  of  suc- 
cessful cultivation  by  hardy  and  temperate  persons,  while  numbers 
of  white  people  in  Carolina  and  Georgia  have  always  raised  both 
grain  and  rice  without  negro  labor.  A  white  man,  with  a  light 
plow  and  two  horses,  will  cultivate  as  much  land  as  seven  negroes 
with  hoes.  But  the  great  planters  were  always  jealous  of  their 
poorer  neighbors,  and  as  they  were  able  to  sell  their  sugar  cheaper, 
and  to  speculate  on  a  larger  scale,  they  bought  them  up  as  fast 
as  they  could.  Hence  the  white  population  daily  decreased;  but 
it  is  to  the  policy  of  the  great  planters  and  to  the  great  masses 
of  capital  in  their  hands,  rather  than  to  the  necessity  for  negro 
labor,  which  grew  in  the  end  to  an  abuse  tcvo  great  to  be  tolerated, 
that  the  decline  of  the  islands  is  truly  attributable.  Had  negroes 
never  beeii  introduced  into  these  islands,  probably  they  would  have 
been  far  more  prosperous,  and  a  scnuxe  of  far  greater  wealth  to 
the  mother-country  than  has  been  the  case.  The  French  planta- 
tions first  rivaled  and  then  exceeded  the  prosperity  of  the  English. 
The  Spanish  islands  were  in  a  b;ickward  condition;  and  the  Dutch 
islands  were  chiefly  trading  stations. 

While  the  settlements  of  JMigland  and  France  were  fast  rising 
into  importance,  the  former  through  ctmstant  immigration,  and  the 
latter  through  a  wise  application  of  capital  and  industrv,  those  of 
Holland,    except    Surinam,    did    not    increase   either   in    wealth   or 


11^  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600- 1VP0 

in  extent.  From  1700  to  1740  the  Dutch  Company  were  the  first 
commercial  power  in  the  East ;  but  though  they  continued  to  make 
conquests,  they  were  not  really  increasing  in  prosperity.  Some 
remarkable  ideas  were  conceived  by  a  Swiss  in  their  employ,  named 
John  Purry.  He  thought  that  the  commercial  countries  of  Europe 
should  not  confine  themselves  to  trading  with  the  old  nations,  but 
that  they  should  send  out  people  to  form  permanent  and  self- 
supporting  settlements.  Fie  had  observed  that  latitudes  of  about 
thirty  and  forty  degrees  from  the  equator,  such  as  those  of  South- 
ern Europe,  Carolina,  Chile,  and  Rio  Janeiro,  were  most  favorable 
for  Europeans.  In  17 18  he  presented  a  memorial  to  the  Dutch 
India  Company,  urging  them  to  plant  new  colonies  on  the  Kafiir 
coast  beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  on  that  part  of  the 
coast  of  New  Holland  which  is  now  called  South  Australia.  Here 
he  wished  to  see  European  settlements  producing  corn,  fruit,  wine, 
and  oil.  and  carrying  on  a  trade  with  India.  But  the  Dutch  were 
afraid  for  their  vSpice  trade,  and  Purry  was  expelled  from  the 
service  of  the  company.  He  then  carried  his  proposals  to  France, 
where  they  were  referred  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  This 
learned  body  wisely  refused  to  judge  of  countries  which  they  had 
never  seen ;  and  Purry  went  to  England.  The  English  were  more 
interested  in  America  than  in  the  coasts  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
They  sent  him  home  to  collect  a  number  of  Swiss  Protestants, 
with  whom  he  sailed  for  Carolina ;  and  there,  around  Purrysburg, 
on  the  savannah  which  divides  Carolina  and  Georgia,  their  descend- 
ants dwell  to  this  day.  Purry,  lil:e  many  other  men  whose  names 
have  perished,  v/as  a  hundred  years  in  advance  of  his  age.  The 
Dutch  East  India  Company  was  a  hundred  years  behind  it. 

Though  the  Portuguese  remained  undisturbed  in  the  posses- 
sion ot  their  East  /\frican  settlements,  the  recovery  of  their  freedom 
came  too  late  to  admit  of  their  keeping  more  than  a  remnant  of 
their  once  vast  commercial  empire  in  the  East.  And  after  the 
alliance  of  the  new  Portuguese  dynasty  with  the  English,  the  Dutch 
I)ursued  them  wiui  still  greater  vigor.  Tliey  drove  them  froiu 
Cochin  in  1662,  and  from  Pegu  in  1719.  Goa,  Daman,  and  Diu 
were  their  chief  pfissessior.s  in  India;  in  tlie  Spice  Islands  they 
retained  (jnly  a  ])art  of  the  Ishmd  of  Timor,  and  nothing  in  China 
but  the  port  of  Macao.  While  the  vast  trade  of  the  Dutch  main- 
tained itself  firmly,  in  spite  of  the  weakness  inherent  in  the  system 
of  an  exclusive  cum[)any.  and  England  and  France  were  rapidly 


THE     MIDDLE     PERIOD  113 

1600-1750 

extetidini^  tlieir  commerce,  the  trade  of  the  Portuguese  settlements 
became  less  and  less,  and  declined  more  than  ever  after  Pombal 
had  established  an  exclusive  company  at  Goa.  The  Dutch  in  the 
East  had  acquired  Malacca,  the  ancient  emporium  of  the  Moorish 
merchants;  and  this,  together  with  Batavia,  made  them  masters  of 
the  only  two  known  channels  of  navigation  between  Europe  and 
the  Spice  Islands.  They  had  great  factories  in  Sumatra ;  Ceylon, 
from  which  they  had  driven  the  Portuguese  in  1658,  yielded  them 
cinnamon,  pepper,  precious  stones,  areca  nuts,  ivory,  and  pearls; 
they  had  numerous  settlements  on  the  Coromandel  coast  of  India, 
but  on  the  Malabar  coast  the  Portuguese,  French  and  English 
had  the  best  of  the  trade.  Java  was  the  center  of  their  commer- 
cial empire.  Unlike  the  Portuguese,  they  tolerated  the  Eastern 
religions;  the  Mohammedan  sultans  of  this  fertile  island  acknowl- 
edged their  protection  one  by  one,  and  in  1768  the  prince  who 
ruled  in  its  eastern  extremity  submitted  to  the  Dutch  arms.  On 
these  native  princes  the  Dutcli  C\)mpany  contented  tlienisclves  with 
levying  an  annual  tribute  of  produce  marketable  in  luu'ope ;  but 
they  lield  the  neighborhood  of  Ijatavia  as  an  absolute  possessic^n. 
Like  many  conquered  countries,  it  was  deseried  by  its  old  inhabi- 
tants, and  labor  was  scarce  until  <-i  large  number  of  Chinese 
and  German  emigrants  were  induced  to  settle  there  by  selling  them 
land  at  a  low  price.  The  Chinese  liJid  long  been  immigrating  in 
vast  numbers  into  the  town  of  liaui\-ia.  They  had  pros[)cred 
exceedingly  by  their  indnstry  and  irugaliiy,  and  in  1740,  inider 
pretence  of  a  conspiracy,  many  of  them  w  ere;  plundered  ;ind  massa- 
cred. Put  they  proxed  indispensable,  both  in  agriculture  and  in 
manufactures;  and  fort}'  years  afier  this  iliere  were  Joo.ooo 
ChincNC  in  P:ita\-!a  and  its  \'icinity.  Tlie  company  exacted  from 
them  hea\-\"  ca-pitaiion  and  cilici'  ta.\c>:  and  it  is  said  to  haxe 
received  no  less  than  \^^)0(^l.  '-tcrling  ;i  \ear  lor  licenses  to  them 
to  keo])  ganiI)ling-hon>c>.  The  comiJany  itself  no  longer  ]»ai(l. 
it  is  true,  the  enormous  dix-iilends  (.>f  30  and  40  ])er  cent,  wliich 
were  common  in  its  early  years;  but  u.]  per  cent,  was  regtilarh' 
paid  Vvhcn  Warren  I  lastiiigs  was  consolidating  lin.glish  aitthcM'itv 
on  the  mainland  of  India.  I'he  position  of  the  com])anv  necessi- 
tated numerous  })ett3-  wars  and  constant  \-igilance  against  the  Malax- 
pirates;  tliey  niaintciined  iotj  many  estalilishments  ;  and  ilnallv.  the 
[•aigli.-^h  ai'M  l-'rench,  iiax  ing  (li>co\-cred  t'lr'Tigli  Dntcli  experience 
whai    were   ilie  ])i"i  i!'i;il)Ie  an<l   llic   nil])!"' 'tilaliie  dejiartmen;.-   >  m"  I'le 


114  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

East  Indian  trade,  sought  to  supplant  them  in  the  former,  leaving 
them  in  possession  of  the  latter.  And  the  sudden  rise  of  England 
and  France  as  militaiy  powers  on  the  Indian  continent  caused 
great  alarm  to  the  company,  whose  military  forces,  though  nu- 
merous, were  mixed  and  ill-disciplined.  The  exploits  of  Clive  clearly 
foreshadowed  the  time  when  Ceylon  and  the  Cape  Settlement  must 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  they  were  thought  to  fore- 
shadow much  more;  for  French  engineers  had  already  planned 
the  capture  of  Batavia,  the  greatest  European  settlement  in  the 
East. 

The  conquest  to  which  the  expedition  of  Columbus  was  in- 
tended to  lead,  and  which  had  been  outlined  in  the  brilliant  but 
transitory  exploits  of  Albuquerque,  was  too  great  to  be  accom- 
plished in  a  single  generation,  or  even  a  single  century.  During  250 
years  several  maritime  powers  had  been  feeling  their  way  on  the 
continent  of  India.  Spain  had  been  at  last  perpetually  excluded 
from  the  Eastern  trade  by  the  Treaty  of  ]\Iunster  in  1648,  which 
the  Dutch  took  care  to  enforce,  though  the  Spaniards  tried  to  set 
up  an  East  India  Company  in  1732,  The  Danes,  the  Swedes,  and 
the  people  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  had  taken  part  in  its  com- 
merce; but  the  events  of  the  eighteenth  century  showed  that  here, 
as  in  Europe,  the  grand  rivalry  lay  between  England  and  France. 
The  dream  of  universal  empire  had  passed  from  the  house  of 
Austria  to  that  of  France.  A  combination  of  Germany  with  Eng- 
land had  defeated  the  effort  in  Europe ;  but  it  was  made  with  better 
chance  of  success  in  America  and  the  East,  where  England  stood 
alone  against  the  French  arms.  The  merchants  of  Normandy  and 
Brittany  had  tried,  without  much  success,  to  establish  a  trade  with 
India;  but  in  1664  Colbert  founded  the  French  East  India  Com- 
pany, with  ])rivileges  greater  than  those  enjoyed  by  the  Dutch 
Company.  .V  settlement  was  obtained  at  Surat,  the  chief  port  of 
tlie  Mogul  Empire,  and  tlie  richest  mart  of  India,  in  1668.  The 
Englisli  and  Dutch  liad  factories  here;  but  the  French  surpassed 
tliem  in  success.  On  the  Eastern  coast  they  soon  after  obtained 
Pondicherry.  It  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1693,  but  restored  at 
the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  Here  the  interests  of  the  French  were 
watched  over  by  a  scries  of  bold  and  patient  administrators. 
Dumas  obtained  the  liberty  of  coining  money,  and  a  large  cession 
of  tcrrit')i-y.  wliich  placed  in  his  liands  all  the  trade  of  the  Carnatic. 
lie  was  >troiig  cnnugli   to  ]<ccp  tlie  \-ictori(nis  ^NJahrattas  at  ba\-. 


THE     MIDDLE     PERIOD  115 

1600-1750 

In  1720  the  French  had  taken  possession  of  Mauritius,  abandoned 
by  the  Dutch,  and  called  it  the  Isle  of  France,  and  under  Labour- 
donnais  it  now  became  a  thriving  colony.  But  it  was  to  Dupleix, 
the  governor  of  Chandcrnagore,  in  Bengal,  that  the  chief  successes 
of  the  French  in  India  were  due.  Dupleix  was  himself  a  wealthy 
speculator;  and,  following  his  advice,  the  French  Company,  secure 
of  the  favor  of  the  Mogul,  extended  their  trade  in  all  directions, 
from  Chandernagore  over  the  continent.  They  also  traded  on 
an  increased  scale  by  sea,  from  the  Arabian  Gulf  to  the  Spice 
Islands,  and  the  name  of  Dupleix  became  so  famous  that  after 
twelve  years  at  Chandernagore  he  was  sent  to  Pondicherry  to 
take  the  general  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  company.  Had 
the  views  of  Dupleix  and  Labourdonnais  been  seconded  by  the 
French  Government,  it  is  probable  that  the  great  empire  of  India 
would  never  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  They 
foresaw  the  impending  struggle,  and  unceasingly  urged  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  a  strong  squadron  in  the  Indian  seas.  The  court 
of  Versailles  was  of  another  opinion;  and  when  the  war  actually 
broke  out,  the  English  were  not  driven,  as  they  might  have  been, 
from  the  sea,  though  Labourdonnais  defeated  them  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  English  settlement  of  Madras.  Divisions 
took  place  in  the  French  Company :  Dupleix  opposed  the  views  of 
Labourdonnais,  who  returned  to  Europe  in  disgust.  The  English 
then  laid  siege  to  Pondicherry,  but  the  peace  which  followed  stayed 
the  struggle  for  a  time.  In  the  meantime,  the  advantage  had 
hitherto  been  on  the  side  of  France.  Dupleix,  seeing  the  advant- 
ages which  the  territorial  possessions  of  the  company  had  procured 
him  in  the  Carnatic.  procured  the  cession  of  six  hundred  miles  of 
coast  in  Orissa.  Intimately  acquainted  with  the  politics  of  the 
Mogul  court,  he  procured  in  1751  the  appointment  of  two  of  his 
allies  as  Subah  of  the  Deccan,  a  territorial  authority  extending 
from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  (ianges,  and  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic. 
He  intended  to  become  the  military  lieutenant  of  tliese  princes,  to 
seize  upon  the  Portuguese  settlements  on  the  ^Malabar  coast,  and 
thus  to  make  the  Frcn.ch  masters  of  the  whole  seaboard  from 
Goa  to  the  Ganges.  The  English,  however,  opposed  these  vast 
pretensions  by  setting  up  an  auii-Xabob  in  the  pcrscMi  of  Moham- 
med Ali  Khan ;  and  a  desultory  war.  the  centers  of  which  were 
at  Madras  and  I'ondiclicrry.  was  carried  on  until  1755.  in  the  name 
:if  the  companies  and  of  the  nati\e  pretenders  whom  they  favored. 


116  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1600-1750 

but  openly  abetted  by  the  government  of  both  nations  in  Europe. 
Thus  we  see  that  both  in  America  and  in  India  a  great  struggle 
between  England  and  France  was  now  impending.  The  Portu- 
guese and  Spaniards  had  fallen  out  of  the  race;  the  Dutch  were 
resting  on  their  successes;  the  attempts  of  all  other  nations  were 
insignificant;  England  and  France  were  each  making  rapid  advances, 
and  neither  in  the  East  nor  in  the  West  was  there  room  for  both 
side  by  side.  England  conquered  in  the  struggle,  and  the  way 
was  then  prepared  for  changes  which  completely  destroyed  the 
whole  system  of  the  European  Colonies,  and  left  in  its  place  one 
of  free  nations.  The  steps  which  led  to  this  great  revolution  will 
be  described  in  the  two  succeeding  chapters. 


Chapter    VIII 

THE   PERIOD   OF   ENGLISH    SUPREMACY.     17S0-1775 

TWO  and  a  lialf  centuries  had  elapsed  since  Europe  »began 
the  gradual  process  of  coloni/.atinn  in  ccnmtries  beyond 
her  borders,  either  newly  discovered  or  newly  opened  to 
navigation,  and  the  result  had  been  to  make  the  mastery  of  all 
that  general  European  enterprise  had  v/on  a  great  stake  to  be 
played  for  by  the  two  great  naval  European  powers.  The  advant- 
age in  the  coming  contest  was  everywhere  0!i  the  side  of  France. 
Her  settlements  were  richer  and  better  fortified,  and  both  in  the 
east  and  in  the  west  she  could  count  on  the  sympathies  of  the 
native  population.  It  was  in  America  that  the  great  contest  was 
begun.  The  French  claimed  tlie  basin  of  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries,  in  right  of  their  colony  of  Louisian;i  at  its  mouth;  and 
they  thought  the  Appalachian  ^lountains  the  natur^.l  biuindary  of 
the  English  settlements.  The  English,  however,  would  not  con- 
sent to  be  thus  excluded  from  a  territory  which  has  l)een  called 
"  the  Garden  of  the  World,"  and  they  settled  there  in  despite  of 
the  French  claims.  Lines  of  forts  were  erected  for  the  defense 
of  the  settlements  of  either  naticMi.  War  broke  out  in  America 
in  1754  and  in  Europe  in  I75^>;  in  1757  it  w:is  resolved  by  Pitt 
to  prosecute  it  vigorously  in  America,  in  1758  the  ICnglish  landed 
on  Cape  Breton  Island ;  Louisburg  was  taken  by  Admiral  IJos- 
cawen  and  General  .Vmherst,  and  the  key  of  Canada  was  in  tlieir 
liands.  The  next  year  the  hold  resolve  was  taken  of  sailing  up 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  taking  Ouebec  and  Montreal,  thus  putting 
an  end  forever  to  tlie  sanguinary  struggles  of  which  the  Oliio 
and  the  Wabash  had  long  been  the  theater,  and  relieving  the 
luiglish  colonists  from  the  ap[)rchension  of  a  hostile  nation  grow- 
ing up  in  their  rear.  'J'roops  had  passed  fr«nn  Canada  h\-  the  Ohio 
to  Louisiana  in  1739,  and  the  mad  to  the  soiitli  had  thus  been 
opened.  The  L^rench  knew  the  country,  and  all  the  operations  of 
the  English  in  the  interior  had  liiliierto  j)roved  unsuccessful.  The 
expedition  of  Generad  nradd.ock  in  1755  against  I'^ort  Duquesne 
had  prtivcd  a  dis;istrous  lailure.      l-'nilx  ildened  i)\'  ilicir  success,  the 

1  17 


118  COLONIES     OF     THE    WORLD 

1750-1775 

French  had  attacked  and  taken  the  English  fort  of  Oswego  in 
1756;  and  in  August,  1757,  they  attacked  and  took  Fort  George, 
the  great  outpost  of  England,  and  the  center  of  any  possible 
operations  by  land  against  Canada.  These  disasters  caused  little 
anxiety  to  the  English,  who  were  secure  in  their  dominion  of  the 
sea.  Early  in  1759  the  English  fleet  sailed  from  Louisburg  up 
the  St.  Lawrence.  General  Wolfe  was  in  command  of  the  High- 
landers and  Grenadiers  which  it  carried.  The  French  fought 
bravely  point  by  point,  but  Wolfe's  generalship  was  irresistible. 
In  the  dead  of  one  night  in  September  he  landed  all  his  forces  under 
the  famous  Heights  of  Abraham,  and  when  the  French  looked  out 
from  their  intrenchments  in  the  morning  they  saw  that  they  must 
either  give  battle  at  once  or  retire  into  the  town  and  prepare  for 
a  siege.  Montcalm  chose  the  former,  and  after  a  short  and 
sharp  engagement,  in  which  both  generals  fell,  the  French  gave 
way.  Quebec,  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  world  after  Gibraltar, 
surrendered  on  September  18.  This  event,  though  it  did  not 
terminate  the  war,  decided  its  issue.  Montreal  capitulated  in  the 
following  year,  and  England  was  mistress  of  the  continent  of  North 
America  from  Florida  to  Labrador. 

The  naval  power  of  the  English  had  been  demonstrated  in 
the  war  of  1739,  but  its  greatest  exploits  were  reserved  for  that 
of  1756.  Pitt  was  the  presiding  genius  of  England,  and  never 
has  Europe  seen  a  greater  war  minister.  His  designs  were  pro- 
portioned to  the  means  at  hand  for  executing  them;  he  chose  for 
their  execution  the  fittest  instruments,  and,  in  spite  of  occasional 
imprudence,  he  was  everywhere  successful.  Besides  Canada,  Pitt 
directed  the  naval  forces  of  England  to  the  conquest  of  the  French 
West  India  Islands,  which  were  commercially  the  most  valuable 
possessions  of  Europe.  In  April,  1759,  Barrington  took  the  Island 
of  Guadeloupe;  and  in  1762  General  Monckton  and  Admiral  Rod- 
ney took  Martinique.  Grenada  and  the  other  Leeward  Islands 
surrendered  without  a  struggle.  Santo  Domingo  was  known  to  be 
capable  of  making  but  a  feeble  defense;  but  before  its  capture 
entered  into  Pitt's  plans  the  fears  and  hostility  of  Spain  liad  taken 
an  active  shape.  Pitt  declared  war  in  1762  against  Spain,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  inflicted  upon  Spain  the  greatest  luimiliation 
she  had  hitherto  experienced.  Havana,  the  capital  of  Cuba,  was 
attacked  and  taken  by  Pocock  and  Albermarle.  It  was  the  key 
of  continental  Spanish  America,  and  the  incidents  of  half  a  cen- 


%^' 


ENGLISH    SUPREMACY  119 

1750-1775 

ttiry  later  leave  no  doubt  that  the  oppressed  natives  and  Creoles 
would  gladly  have  thrown  themselves  into  the  arms  of  England. 
The  entire  continent  of  America,  in  fact,  lay  at  the  feet  of  the 
English  Government,  for  the  advancing  shadow  of  the  great 
colonial  power  had  fallen  even  on  its  western  shores.  England 
had  long  been  engaged  in  reconnoitering  on  the  Pacific,  and  Anson, 
in  the  War  of  1739,  had  been  actually  charged  with  the  conquest 
of  Peru  and  Chile.  Unforeseen  disasters  had  checked  that  great 
sailor's  attempt,  but  the  success  of  a  similar  one  in  favorable  cir- 
cumstances was  regarded  as  certain.  To  a  well-appointed  force, 
resting  as  on  a  basis  on  the  friendly  ports  of  Brazil,  and  doubling 
the  south  corner  of  the  continent  at  the  proper  season,  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  free  natives  of  the  south  neither  the  Chilean 
nor  the  Peruvian  coast  would  be  capable  of  any  effectual  resistance. 
The  capture  of  Havana,  though  it  was  restored  at  the  Peace  of 
1763,  made  an  indelible  impression  on  the  mind  of  Europe.  For  the 
Spanish  American  empire  it  was  indeed  the  beginning  of  the  end. 

Dupleix  had  placed  the  French  in  possession  of  four  extensive 
tracts  of  India,  but  they  were  too  remote  from  each  other  to  be 
defended  by  one  plan  of  operations.  He  was  besides  practically 
master  of  the  whole  Carnatic,  the  most  flourishing  province  of 
the  Mogul  Empire,  and  the  direction  of  its  affairs  was  now  for- 
mally tendered  to  him.  But  the  Court  of  Versailles  saw  good  reason 
for  declining  this  proposal ;  Dupleix  was  thought  to  have  out- 
stepped the  bounds  of  prudence :  he  was  recalled  and  replaced  by 
Lally,  a  man  unlike  him  in  every  respect.  Lally  was  routed  by 
Sir  Eyre  Coote  at  Wandewash,  the  English  defeated  the  French 
squadron  at  sea,  and  Pondicherry,  after  enduring  the  horrors  of 
famine,  surrendered  in  1761.  Clive  had  already  accomplished  that 
prodigious  revolution  in  I5engal.  which  placed  this  province  in  the 
company's  hands,  and  tlie  English  now  resolved  to  remove  eft'ec- 
tually  all  obstacles  to  that  conf|uest  of  territory  in  India  which 
the  success  of  the  policy  of  Dupleix  had  proved  to  be  practicable. 
The  French  troops  were  disarmed  and  dispatched  to  Europe,  and 
by  the  Definitive  Treaty  of  iy(>S  l-'raiicc  bound  herself  to  maintain 
no  more  troops  in  India,  luigland  now  esta])lished  ^Mohammed 
Ali  Khan,  a  creature  of  the  company,  as  Nabob  of  Arcot.  He  re- 
sided at  ^Madras.  Ica^-ing  the  whole  of  his  dominions  to  tl^c  protec- 
tion of  the  com])an\"'s  arms  ;in<l  the  administration  of  their  officers; 
and  in  1767  tlicy  (ibiaiiicd  from  the  Subah  of  the  Dcccan  a  con- 


120  COLONIES     OF    THE     WORLD 

1750-1775 

cession  of  immense  provinces  in  the  neighborhood  of  Masulipatam 
from  which  they  had  driven  the  French  in  1761.  Hyder  Ali 
Khan,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  who  had  made  himself  master  of 
Mysore,  vainly  endeavored  to  dislodge  them  (1768);  and  from 
this  time  forward  the  English  possessions  have  gone  on  gradually 
increasing.  In  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  as  if  to  prove  to  Spain 
that  she  existed  henceforth  as  a  colonial  power  solely  by  the  for- 
bearance of  England,  Manila,  the  capital  of  the  Philippines,  was 
taken  by  General  Draper  and  Admiral  Cornish  in  1762,  and  ran- 
somed from  pillage  at  the  price  of  1,000,000/.  This  ransom  was 
never  paid. 

The  Treaty  of  1763,  made  between  England,  France,  and 
Spain,  and  known  as  the  Definitive  Treaty,  left  England  every- 
where far  stronger  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  North  of 
the  English  colonies,  Canada,  with  all  its  dependencies,  includ- 
ing Cape  Breton,  the  Dunkirk  of  North  America,  was  ceded  to 
England ;  France  renounced  all  claim  to  Nova  Scotia ;  and  in  the 
south  gave  up  all  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  except  New 
Orleans.  Spain  surrendered  Florida,  and  by  a  collateral  agree- 
ment received  as  compensation  from  France  New  Orleans  and 
the  French  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi.  England  was  thus 
greatly  strengthened  in  the  neighborhood  of  Spanish  America: 
but  a  more  important  advantage  was  secured  by  the  possession  of 
Dominica,  Tobago,  and  St.  Vincent,  together  with  Grenada  and 
tlie  Grenadines,  which  were  taken  in  exchange  for  St.  Lucie.  The 
possession  of  these  islands  placed  the  remaining  French  sugar 
islands  at  the  mercy  of  the  English  fleet,  and  greatly  strengthened 
England  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Spanish  mainland.  It  added, 
moreover,  a  great  province  to  tlie  English  West  Indies.  Grenada 
alone  is  twice  as  large  as  Barbados:  and  the  overflow  of  capital 
and  p(i{)ulatioii  of  the  British  islands  now  fell  upon  British  soil, 
instead  '.  f  enriching  th.e  Dutch  and  Danish  islands.  The  English 
settlement  of  l)nccaneer  origin,  which  for  two  hundred  years  had 
existed  i(jv  niahogany-cutting  in  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  was 
secured  from  tlie  molestation  of  the  Spaniards,  and  in  a  year  or 
two  British  Irionduras  became  a  regular  crown  colony.  In  India 
the  French  had  to  renounce  all  their  military  policy:  they  were 
bound  to  build  no  fortiflcations  and  keep  no  troops  in  Bengal,  and 
they  acknowledged  ]\lohrimmed  Ali  Khan  as  Nabob  of  the 
Caniatic. 


ENGLISH     SUPREMACY  15^1 

1750-1775 

The  loss  of  Canada  stimulated  the  French  Government  to  new 
projects;  and  Choiseul  proposed  to  replace  it  by  the  creation  of  a 
great  colony  in  "  Equinoctial  France,"  as  Guiana  had  been  grandly 
named  by  Louis  XIV.  Little  enough  could  have  been  known  of 
the  marshes  of  Guiana  to  those  who  proposed  to  send  out  the 
peasants  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  to  cultivate  them;  but  there  was 
no  lack  of  emigrants,  all  eager  for  wealth.  Xr)t  only  laborers,  but 
tradesmen,  capitalists,  men  of  letters,  civil  ;ui(l  military  officials, 
and  even  actors  and  fiddlers,  hastened  to  inscribe  their  names  for 
the  unhappy  colony  of  Kouron,  which  proved  a  total  failure,  after 
costing  France  14,000  men  and  30,000,000  francs  in  money.  Tiie 
project  was  revived  in  1777  by  the  Baron  de  Besner.  who  proposed 
to  employ  on  a  great  scale  the  labor  of  the  native  Indians  and  the 
]\Iaroon  negroes  from  Dutch  Guiana;  but  the  French,  full  of  West 
Indian  ideas,  were  unwilling  to  begin  the  unprofitable  labor  of 
draining  the  great  alluvial  flats  which  are  the  only  productive 
parts,  and  fixed  their  plantations  on  the  barren  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains. Nor  was  it  until  the  system  of  tlie  Dutch  in  their  thriving 
settlement  had  been  studied  and  adopted,  that  I'rench  Guiana  be- 
gan to  flourish  on  a  small  scale.  Its  later  history  has  been  as 
unfortunate  as  its  beginnings;  and  it  is  the  only  colony  in  the 
world  which  has  sunk  in  our  own  times  to  the  condition  of  a 
penal  settlement. 

Holland  w^as  the  only  colonial  nation  that  was  not  affected  by 
the  Definitive  Treaty,  and  it  was  only  in  the  East  that  the  rivalry 
of  England  and  Holland  subsisted.  Here  indeed  the  Dutch  were 
strong.  From  the  massacre  of  Amboyna  to  the  wars  of  the  h'rench 
Revolution  they  monopolized  the  spice  trade ;  and  they  had  a  far 
larger  share  of  the  trade  of  the  Indian  peninsula  than  either  the 
French  or  English.  The  I'ortuguese  power  in  the  East  was  novr 
a  mere  shadow.  There  was  still  a  viceroy,  who  sat  under  a  canopv 
at  Goa,  and  had  under  him  a  court  of  judges  and  several  provincial 
generals;  but  all  the  trade  of  P(3rtugucse  India  might  now  have 
been  done  by  a  single  luiglisli  ship,  and  the  East  would  certainlv 
have  been  abandoned  if  the  priests  had  not  resisted  it  011  the  ground 
that  this  would  cause  the  loss  of  a  multitude  of  souls.  Pombal's 
company  completed  the  ruin.  The  Dutch  East  India  Company,  on 
the  contrary,  was  the  most  thriving  mercantile  body  in  the  world, 
and  it  was  fully  as  important  to  the  nation  as  the  luiglish  East 
India  Company  had  become  in  England  half  a  century  later.     Be- 


1^  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1750-1775 

sides  the  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Ceylon,  and  their  settlements 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Mocha,  the}'  had  settlements  at 
thirty  places  on  the  shores  of  India  proper,  and  eastward  of  this 
the  trade  was  theirs  without  competition.  The  company  appointed 
magistrates,  generals,  and  governors,  it  sent  and  received  em- 
bassies, made  peace  and  war,  levied  troops,  fitted  out  fleets,  ad- 
ministered justice,  and  coined  money.  England  had  ruined  the 
colonial  empire  of  France,  and  shaken  to  the  foundation  that  of 
Spain,  and  it  now  remained  to  be  seen  whether  that  of  Holland 
would  bear  the  shock  of  her  hostility.  We  shall  shortly  see  how 
the  question  was  answered. 

We  have  not  hitherto  said  how  much  of  the  progress  of  com- 
merce and  colonization  is  due  to  the  steady  growth  of  science  at 
home.  From  the  days  of  Columbus  the  art  of  navigation  had 
steadily  advanced  with  that  of  shipbuilding.  The  early  sailors  had 
either  ill-built  and  unwieldy  ships,  which  it  was  only  safe  to  sail 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  or  else  mere  cockboats; 
they  were  perpetually  puzzled  by  the  variation  of  the  compass,  and 
they  had  nothing  to  sail  by  but  the  plane  chart,  which  could  never 
be  rendered  accurate,  because  it  is  impossible  to  represent  accu- 
rately the  parts  of  a  spherical  surface  by  a  flat  picture.  Gerard 
Mercator,  a  Netherlander,  first  found  out  how  to  make  accurate 
charts  about  1569;  but  it  was  long  before  his  method  was  generally 
adopted.  Other  Dutchmen  made  advances  in  the  science  of  navi- 
gation and  in  the  construction  of  astronomical  instruments;  but 
the  greatest  improvement  for  many  years  was  the  application  of 
logarithms  to  nautical  calculations  by  an  Englishman,  Edmund 
Gunter,  about  1620,  By  means  of  the  logarithmic  tables  anybody 
who  knows  the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic  may  easily  make  ac- 
curate reckonings  at  sea,  and  what  was  formerly  an  intricate  and 
difiicult  science  was  thus  reduced  to  a  simple  mechanical  form.  Dr. 
Halley,  a  great  English  astronomer,  constructed  a  chart  showing 
the  variation  of  the  compass  in  all  parts  of  the  globe  by  means  of 
the  Halleyan  or  isogonic  lines.  This  was  published  in  1700;  and 
its  principles  were  corrected  about  fifty  years  later  by  Euler,  who 
showed  that  the  earth  has  two  magnetic  poles,  not  coinciding  with 
its  geographical  poles.  The  scientific  societies  of  England  and 
France  vied  with  each  other  in  these  and  similar  researches ;  and 
we  may  be  sure  that  if  the  attention  of  learned  men  had  not  been 
systematically  directed  to  them  navigation  and  commerce,  which 


ENGLISH     SUPREMACY  123 

1750-1775 

were  the  springs  of  colonization,  would  long  have  remained  in  a 
backward  stage.  But  the  clu"ef  obstacle  to  navigation  was  always 
the  want  of  a  good  metliod  of  determining  the  longitude.  The 
Englisli  Government,  in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  offered  20.000/. 
for  an  instrument  wliich  would  do  this  to  a  certain  degree  of 
accuracy;  and  nearly  fifty  years  afterward  this  reward  was  won 
by  a  Yorkshireman  named  John  Harrison,  whose  chronometer 
was,  perhaps,  the  greatest  invention  in  navigation  since  the  mari- 
ner's compass.  In  1767  the  government  began  to  publish  the 
Nautical  Almanac.  Cook,  of  whom  we  shall  shortly  speak,  carried 
Harrison's  chronometer  with  him  on  his  famous  voyages ;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  all  these  matters  in 
tracing  the  growth  of  trade  and  colonization. 

When  the  war  broke  out  in  1756  there  was  a  young  seaman 
engaged  in  the  coal  trade,  who  liad  raised  himself  from  the  position 
of  a  common  sailor,  named  James  Cook.  Refusing  promotion  in 
the  service  of  his  shipowner,  he  offered  himself  for  that  of  the 
king,  distinguished  himself  in  several  ways,  and  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Louisburg.  He  was  intrusted  with  important  duties  at 
the  siege  of  Quebec,  but  while  thus  engaged  he  found  time  to  study 
Euclid,  and  supply  the  defects  of  his  early  education.  He  speedily 
rose  in  rank,  and  as  he  combined  in  a  remarkable  degree  great  skill 
in  seamanship  and  astronomy,  he  was  dispatched  to  the  Pacific  in 
1768  to  conduct  obsen'ations  of  the  transit  of  Venus,  which  took 
place  in  the  following  year.  The  transit  w\as  observed  from 
Otaheite ;  and  on  his  return  voyage  over  the  Pacific  he  discovered 
and  surveyed  Xew  Zealand  and  the  eastern  coast  of  New  H^oll.and, 
and  made  his  way  home  by  way  of  Batavia  and  the  Cape,  having 
made  in  one  voyage  greater  discoveries  than  any  navigator  since 
Columbus.  It  w'as  immediately  perceived  that  he  was  qualified 
to  pursue  still  more  extensive  discoveries.  The  map  of  the  world 
was  before  tliese  voyages  only  very  imperfectly  known.  ]\Iany 
groups  of  islands  had  never  been  surveyed,  and  it  was  confidently 
believed  that  round  the  south  pole  of  the  globe  there  lay  a  vast 
continent  called  Terra  Australis,  or  Soutliernland.  This  continent 
was  thought  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  mistress  of  the  colonial 
world.  Cook  was  intrusted  witli  the  task  of  discovering  and  ex- 
ploring it;  and  in  1772  the  Jvcsoliilion  and  the  Advoiturcr  left 
Deptfurd  13ocks  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  which  lasted  more  than 
three  years.     Cook  tlid  not  discover  any  Terra  Australis.  but  he 


124,  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1750-1775 

showed  that  even  if  it  existed  it  could  not  be  habitable,  and  that 
the  coasts  of  the  vast  island  of  New  Holland  had  been  mistaken  for 
it.  The  name  was  transferred  to  this  great  island,  which  Cook 
accurately  surveyed  and  made  known  to  the  English ;  and  he 
pointed  out  how  advantageously  it  might  be  colonized.  Cook's 
skill  and  enterprise  led  the  way  to  the  foundation  of  another  im- 
portant colony.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  dream  of  the 
European  navigators,  the  discovery  of  a  northwest  passage  to  India 
and  China.  Parliament  had  offered  a  reward  of  20,000/.  for  its 
discovery,  and  Cook's  third  voyage,  which  he  undertook  with  this 
view,  was  the  most  memorable  of  all.  He  did  not  indeed  discover 
a  northwest  passage  any  more  than  a  Terra  Australis ;  but  he  made 
it  highly  probable  that  no  such  passage  existed.  Previous  ex- 
plorers had  vainly  tried  to  find  it  from  the  east;  Cook,  by  a  bold 
effort  of  judgment,  laid  his  plan  for  its  discovery  by  the  west.  On 
this  famous  voyage  he  discovered  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  ex- 
plored the  hitherto  unknown  western  coast  of  America,  north  of 
California,  to  a  length  of  3500  miles.  He  laid  down  accurately 
on  his  chart  the  approximating  coast  lines  of  Asia  and  America, 
passed  the  straits  which  divide  them,  and  saw  enough  of  the  Arctic 
Sea  to  dispel  all  hopes  of  ever  reaching  the  Atlantic  from  the  Pa- 
cific, or  the  Pacific  from  the  Atlantic,  by  the  northern  extremity 
of  America.  Cook  was  murdered  by  the  savages  of  Hawaii  on 
his  return  from  this  voyage,  which  opened  to  British  enterprise  the 
Pacific  shore  of  Canada,  Vancouver  Island,  and  British  Colum- 
bia. As  America  owes  its  fortunes  to  the  genius  and  daring  of 
Columbus,  so  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Pacific  Islands,  and 
British  Columbia,  owe  their  future  to  the  science  and  adventurous 
spirit  of  Cook.  Cook  destroyed  two  great  geographical  illusions : 
he  fixed  forever  on  the  map  of  the  world  the  outlines  of  land  and 
ocean ;  he  at  once  stimulated  and  regulated  the  enterprise  of  those 
who  followed  in  his  steps.  The  results  of  his  discoveries  belong 
to  future  parts  of  colonial  history,  but  his  fame  was  deservedly 
great  in  his  lifetime.  The  French  never  molested  his  vessels  when 
at  war  with  England,  but  this  generous  feeling  was  not  shared  by 
Spain  and  the  American  Colonies.^ 

The   Colonial    Empire  of   England   now   extended   from   the 

^ "  All  captains  and  commanders  of"  American  "armed  ships"  were  in- 
structed, March  lo.  1770,  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  American  ^Minister  to  France, 
to  treat  "that  nio~t  cclehrated  navigator,  Captain  (.^>i<'k,'"  not  as  an  enemy,  hnt 
"with   all   civility    and   kindness,    affording"    him    "all    the    assistance    in   your 


ENGLISH     SUPREMACY  125 

1750-1775 

Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Her  ships  and  her  armies  were  victorious  in  every  part  of 
the  globe.  When  peace  was  made  with  France  and  Spain,  in  1763, 
many  of  the  British  conquests  w-ere  judiciously  restored.  The 
British  Empire,  in  truth,  was  larger  than  British  statesmen  could 
at  this  time  conveniently  manage ;  and  the  French  and  Spaniards, 
generously  as  most  people  thought  that  England  had  treated  them 
in  1763,  were  scheming  to  retrieve  their  losses.  New  France  liad 
been  conquered  and  added  to  the  possessions  of  England,  and 
Spain  believed  that  her  hour  would  come  next.  Choiseul,  a  bold 
and  active  minister,  directed  the  policy  of  France,  and  he  was 
intriguing  with  all  the  European  powers  for  a  grand  attack  on 
England.  He  encouraged  Spain  to  refuse  to  pay  the  Manila  ran- 
som, and  to  set  up  a  claim  to  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  England 
was  obliged  to  form  defensive  [jlans  on  a  large  scale.  The  expense 
of  the  civil  and  military  establishments  abroad  was  now  greatly 
increased.  England  was  at  this  time  by  no  means  a  wealthy  coun- 
try in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  her  vast  dominions.  Her  wars 
had  involved  her  in  a  heavy  public  debt ;  her  people  were  impatient 
of  further  taxation;  but  it  was  necessary  to  raise  more  taxes  in 
order  to  defray  the  increased  and  still  increasing  expenditure.  The 
government  got  }ear  by  year  deeper  in  debt,  and  it  was  at  last 
resolved  that  the  colonies,  for  whose  benefit  these  great  expenses 
were  being  incurred,  should  contribute  to  it  themselves.  We  have 
seen  how  great  was  the  dcx'clopment  they  had  readied,  and  it  was 
generally  understood  that  the  comfortable  circumstances  of  the 
colonists  quite  justified  the  measure.  To  lay  heavier  duties  on  the 
imports  from  the  colonies  would  have  been  to  tax  England,  not 
America ;  and  such  were  the  relations  between  the  ct:)lonies  and 
foreign  nations  that  it  was  impossible  to  meddle  with  the  produce 
either  of  the  fisheries  or  of  the  sugar  plantations.  It  was  necessary 
to  leave  alone  also  tlie  carrying  trade.  Direct  taxation,  or  cus- 
toms duties  on  im[)()rts,  were  the  only  altcrnatix'c,  and  we  shall 
see,  shortly,  the  results  o\  attem])ts  to  introduce  both  the  one  and 
the  other.  In  the  meantime  hjiglisli  statesmen  formed  plans  for 
such  an  extension  of  the  colonics  as  should  turn  out  most  to  the 
advantage  of  England.  Not  C;mada,  but  the  south,  was  thought 
to  be  the  most  promising:  and  <a  great  colony,  called  New  Wales, 

power.  ...  In  so  Join!?  .  .  .  tlicTc  ;>  no  doubt  of  your  obtaining  the 
approbation  of  the  Congrc^-.'■  -Franklin's  Work/,  ed.  by  J.  Bigelow,  Vol.  VI,. 
p.  3-'i. 


126  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1750-1775 

was  projected  on  the  Ohio.  The  colonial  system  was  now  at  the 
height  of  its  glory.  The  manufacturers  of  England  looked  for- 
ward intently  to  the  time  when  it  would  not  be  worth  the  while  of 
the  colonists  even  to  make  a  shoe  or  knit  a  stocking.  "  Then, 
indeed,"  as  one  of  them  said,  "  will  they  thrive  indeed,  and  Britain 
be  happy."  The  duty  of  a  colony  was  to  work  diligently  at  its 
mines,  its  fisheries,  and  its  plantations.  The  destiny  of  America 
was  to  be  to  supply  Great  Britain  with  raw  materials;  and  Great 
Britain  was  to  be  made  in  this  respect  independent  of  all  the  rest  of 
Europe.  The  St.  Lawrence  was  to  send  the  flax,  hemp,  potash, 
and  naval  stores  she  imported  from  the  Baltic ;  the  Mississippi 
to  supply  her  with  the  wine,  oil,  silk,  drugs,  and  fruits  for  which 
her  treasure  was  yearly  exported  to  the  Mediterranean.  All 
this  trade  would  enrich  English  shipowners  and  increase  Eng- 
land's naval  strength.  The  immensely  increased  population  of  the 
colonies,  and  the  spirit  with  which  they  took  up  the  war  with 
France  in  America,  gave  hopes  that  they  would  one  day  greatly 
contribute  to  her  military  strength  at  home.  So  rooted  were  these 
ideas  that  long  after  the  Americans  had  begun  to  resist  taxation 
from  home,  it  was  believed  that  even  if  they  achieved  their  inde- 
pendence they  would  soon  perceive  their  mistake,  and  voluntarily 
throw  themselves  at  the  feet  of  Great  Britain. 

The  truth,  however,  was,  that  while  the  colonies  were  attain- 
ing the  height  of  their  prosperity,  and  reflecting  this  prosperity 
upon  their  mother-countries,  the  colonial  system  itself  was  totter- 
ing to  its  fall.  The  home  governments  stubbornly  shut  their  eyes 
to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  settlements  which  they  looked  upon 
as  merely  contributory  to  their  own  wealth  and  greatness  were 
growing  into  new  nations,  which  upon  the  happening  of  a  fit  op- 
portunity would  surely  seek  their  independence.  The  Definitive 
Treaty  of  1763  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  beginning  of  a  wonder- 
ful lialf-century  of  transition,  during  which  this  change  was 
really  everywhere  effected,  here  in  one  way,  and  there  in  another. 
This  is  the  first  occasion  in  history  when  a  great  political  convul- 
sion has  traveled  (]uickly  from  one  end  of  a  great  continent  to 
the  other,  and  accomplished  a  revolution  which  can  never  be  re- 
versed. The  fall  of  the  power  of  Europe  in  Xorth  and  South 
America  is  perhaps  the  grandest  catastrophe  in  all  history,  though 
we  stand  at  [)resent  too  near  to  it  to  realize  its  full  significance. 


Chapter    IX 

THE   AMERICAN    REVOLUTION.     1776 

THE  American  colonists  had  already  proved  their  strength 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War;  they  were  strongly  attached  to 
England,  but  more  strongly  to  the  English  liberties  which 
they  had  inherited.  England  had  allowed  them  to  form  themselves 
into  several  little  independent  republics,  most  of  which  would  long 
ago  have  shaken  off  the  commercial  yoke  of  the  mother-country  if 
they  had  not  had  before  their  eyes  the  fear  of  the  French  knocking 
at  their  gates.  When  Canada  was  conquered  this  fear  was  gone; 
and  when  England  proposed  to  tax  them  for  the  avowed  purpose 
of  keeping  up  a  military  force,  they  believed  that  this  was  only  the 
beginning  of  a  plan  for  reducing  them  to  the  model  of  the  Royal 
Governments  of  Georgia  and  Canada.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
English  statesmen,  if  they  had  pleased,  might  easily  have  avoided 
the  supposed  necessity  of  taxing  America,  They  might  have  put 
off  until  better  times  any  increase  in  the  army,  and  have,  in  the 
meantime,  greatly  increased  the  land  revenue.  The  colonists  re- 
sisted Grenville's  Stamp  .Vet  so  unanimously  that  it  was  with- 
drawn by  the  government  wiiicli  succeeded;  but  Townshend 
in  1767  revived  the  attempt,  and  laid  duties  upon  tea,  paper,  glass, 
and  painters'  colors,  some  of  tlie  most  important  articles  exported 
to  them  by  England.  The  colcMiists  unanimously  resolved  not  to 
buy  of  England  any  of  the  taxed  articles ;  and  as  the  taxes  there- 
fore only  ruined  the  English  trade,  they  were  repealed  in  1770, 
except  a  trifling  duty  on  tea,  which  was  purposely  left  as  an  asser- 
tion of  the  right  of  taxation.  In  1773  a  cargo  of  tea,  which  had 
just  arrived  in  the  port  of  Boston,  was  thrown  into  the  sea  by  the 
people,  and  the  British  Parliament  retaliated  by  completely  abolish- 
ing the  charter  of  the  colony  and  closing  the  port.  From  this 
period,  hostilities  became  inevitable.  A  congress  of  the  colonists 
was  opened  at  Philadelphia  in  the  next  year,  and  in  1775  the  first 
blood  was  shed  at  the  battle  of  Lexington.     In  1776  the  thirteen 

127 


128  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1776-1800 

colonies  declared  themselves  independent.  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia  remained  loyal.  In  the  next  year  General  Burgoyne,  the 
British  commander  in  chief  in  Canada,  invaded  the  revolted  col- 
onies from  the  north,  but  w^as  defeated  and  capitulated  at  Saratoga. 
France,  of  course,  tried  to  take  advantage  of  this  disaster.  She 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  colonies  and  entered  into 
treaties  of  alliance  and  of  commerce  with  them.  War  between 
France  and  England  ensued  in  which  the  French  temporarily  cap- 
tured the  islands  of  Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  and  Grenada,  though 
they  lost  St.  Lucie.  Lord  Cornwallis,  the  British  commander  in 
the  southern  colonies,  surrendered  at  Yorktown  in  1781;  but  the 
splendid  victory  of  Rodney  off  Guadeloupe  retrieved  British  honor, 
and  proved  the  superiority  of  England  at  sea  to  the  combined 
power  of  France,  Spain,  and  the  thirteen  colonies.  But  the  Peace 
of  Versailles,  in  1783,  left  England  in  a  far  less  dominant  position 
than  she  held  at  that  of  Paris,  twenty  years  before.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  colonies,  thence  called  the  United  States,  was 
formally  acknowledged;  Tobago,  gained  from  the  French  in  1763, 
was  restored,  and  they  were  allowed  a  greater  share  than  before 
in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  and  to  take  possession  of  the  small 
islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon.  Florida  was  restored  to  Spain. 
From  the  Dutch,  against  whom  England  had  declared  war  in  con- 
sequence of  their  joining  the  armed  neutrality  formed  by  Russia, 
the  English  not  only  took  several  places  in  India,  but  exacted  the 
free  navigation  of  all  the  Eastern  seas.  The  independence  of 
America  was  important  on  many  accounts ;  but  its  immediate 
effect  was  felt  in  its  destroying  the  Navigation  Act,  and  opening 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States  to  the  world.  The  shipping 
of  the  United  States  increased  fivefold  in  twenty  years;  the  trade 
with  England  increased  in  the  same  proportion ;  and  these  facts 
in  tlie  end  showed  the  people  of  England  that  it  was  well  to 
release  llieir  colonies  from  tutelage  as  speedily  as  possible.  France 
and  Spain  began  to  cast  about  for  new  colonies;  Spain  explored 
the  western  coast  northward  of  Mexico,  and  France  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  gain  a  footing  in  South  America.  People  began  to 
think  more  and  more  of  agricultural  colonies,  and  less  of  planta- 
tions and  colonial  pcjsscssions ;  but  to  form  these  on  a  great  scale 
fell  to  the  lot  of  England  alone.  Since  the  independence  of  Amer- 
ica, English  c<-i])ilal  and  labor  have  been  dispersed  all  over  the 
world,  and  made  the  beginnings  of  a  new  United  States  on  each 


AMERICAN     REVOLUTION  129 

1776-1800 

shore  of  British  America,  in  South  Africa,  and  in  the  great  group 
of  islands  called  Australasia. 

The  relations  between  England  and  the  English  colonies  are 
now  so  different  that  it  is  not  easy  to  estimate  the  difference  which 
the  independence  of  the  American  colonies  produced  in  the  mother 
country  at  the  time.  Canada  and  Australia,  for  instance,  are 
bound  to  England  by  a  tie  which  is  known  to  be  so  slight  that  its 
rupture  would  be  not  at  all  dreaded;  and  such  a  rupture  would 
hardly  be  felt  commercially  whenever  it  happened.  But  the  rup- 
ture of  the  ties  between  America  and  England  amounted  to  the 
total  destruction  of  a  great  artificial  system  of  trade,  in  which  most 
of  the  home  merchants  and  manufacturers  were  interested.  The 
anticipations  of  these  were  of  course  gloomy  enough ;  but  the  real 
result,  as  had  been  foreseen  by  a  few  far-sighted  men,  was  much 
to  their  advantage.  As  soon  as  the  old  narrow  system  of  com- 
merce collapsed,  a  new  one  naturally  arose,  of  much  vaster  propor- 
tions, and  offering  an  unlimited  scope  for  extension.  The  col- 
lapse of  the  colonial  system,  therefore,  laid  solid  beginnings  for 
free  trade  in  England ;  and  in  almost  every  way  it  proved  to  be  a 
great  benefit.  The  great  English  minister  into  whose  hands  the 
affairs  of  England  fell,  was  prepared  to  advance  free  trade  far  more 
quickly  than  people  thought.  But  Pitt's  hands  were  stayed  by  the 
French  Revolution ;  a  catastrophe  whose  effect  was  more  imme- 
diately felt  than  even  the  fall  of  the  Act  of  Navigation.  The 
French  Revolution  delayed  his  plans  on  the  one  hand,  but  on  the 
other,  as  we  shall  see  by  the  following  chapter,  it  finislied  the  work 
of  American  independence  by  destroying  the  old  system  in  the  case 
of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonies. 

Cook  stimulated  discovery  almost  as  much  as  Columbus  him- 
self. The  journals  of  his  voyages  were  soon  in  circulation  all  over 
the  world.  A  crowd  of  navigators  of  all  nations  followed  in  his 
track  on  the  northwest  coast  of  America,  of  whom  the  most  famous 
were  Vancouver  and  La  Perouse.  The  abundance  of  fine  furs  on 
the  north  part  of  this  coast  attracted  the  merchants  of  Siberia  and 
Kamchatka;  and  in  the  year  after  1783  many  settlements  for  the 
skin  trade  were  made  by  the  Russians.  The  vast  territories  inland 
were  traversed  by  Mackenzie.  lM\azer,  and  other  travelers;  but 
for  many  years  no  settlements  except  stations  for  the  fur  trade 
existed  on  the  Pacific  shore  of  the  British  territory.  Great  eft'orts 
were  made  to  do  for  maps  of  the  soil  what  Cook  had  done  for  the 


130  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1776-1807 

chart  of  the  ocean.  Of  Africa  Httle  was  known  beyond  the  coasts, 
but  these  revealed  the  existence  of  a  great  savage  population. 
Many  philanthropic  people  now  began  to  think  of  civilizing  them. 
In  1787  a  party  of  colonists,  led  by  a  Swede  called  Wadstrom, 
landed  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  but  they  were  driven  off  by 
the  opposition  of  the  French  Senegal  Company.  The  English  peo- 
ple, however,  took  up  Wadstrom  and  his  cause.  The  plan  was, 
that  the  slaves  of  America  should  be  emancipated  and  sent  back  to 
Africa,  and  that  with  their  experience  of  civilized  life,  they  might 
begin  the  task  of  civilizing  their  fellow  countrymen.  In  the  south 
of  Africa,  Patterson  and  Vaillant  began  their  explorations  in  Caff- 
raria,  in  1788.  These  were  the  beginning  of  great  settlements. 
The  African  Association  shortly  afterward  sent  out  several  ex- 
plorers, the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was  Mungo  Park.  The 
cession  of  Louisiana  by  Spain  to  France,  and  by  France  to  the 
United  States,  laid  open  a  vast  region  west  of  the  Mississippi  to 
American  enterprise,  and  Pursley,  in  1805,  traversed  its  pathless 
forests  until  he  reached  the  Spanish  territory  of  New  Mexico.  In 
the  next  year  Lewis  and  Clark  first  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  reached  the  northwest  coast.  The  Pacific  Islands  were  visited 
by  whaling  vessels,  and  European  settlers  began  to  fix  themselves 
in  their  tracks.  Missionaries  soon  followed,  and  in  many  places  of 
the  South  Seas  Christianity  and  civilization  made  a  beginning 
together. 

From  the  independence  of  America  dates  the  great  agitation 
against  the  slave  trade,  which  ended  with  its  abolition  in  1807. 
More  than  a  century  before,  George  Fox  had  loudly  denounced  the 
slavery  of  Barbados;  and  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania  had  all 
emancipated  their  slaves.  The  famous  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence com!ucnced  with  declaring  "  all  men  are  born  free  and  equal," 
and  all  tlic  States,  except  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  followed  up 
their  victory  over  England  by  prohibiting  the  importation  of  any 
more  negro  slaves;  and  from  1808  a  federal  statute  prohibited  their 
importation  into  any  part  of  the  Union.  Sympathy  for  the  negroes 
spread  at  once  to  hjigland.  Many  black  slaves,  whose  masters  had 
been  ruined  l)y  tlic  war,  were  found  naked  and  starving  in  the 
streets  of  London,  as  well  as  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  it  was  resolved 
to  found  a  free  colony  at  Sierra  Leone  on  the  African  coast  for 
their  reception,  ^fhis  was  done,  through  the  efforts  of  Granville 
Sharp  and  Jonas  Ilanway,  in  1787;  the  colonists  were  joined  by 


AMERICAN     REVOLUTION  131 

1776-1800 

free  negroes  from  the  West  Indies ;  and  though  the  natives  dis- 
persed them,  the  settlement  was  restored  in  1791,  and  long  served 
as  an  asylum  for  the  rescued  victims  of  the  slave  traffic.  But  the 
hopes  that  were  entertained  of  its  forming  a  center  from  which 
civilization  might  gradually  cover  equatorial  Africa  have  hitherto 
been  fruitless. 

The  loss  of  the  thirteen  colonies  gave  a  new  importance  to 
the  remaining  members  of  the  British  Colonial  Empire.  It  was 
foreseen  that  a  religious  concession  must  be  made  if  Canada  was  to 
be  retained;  and  the  Act  of  1774,  for  regulating  its  government, 
practically  gave  a  legal  establishment  to  the  Catholic  religion,  sub- 
ject to  the  king's  supremacy.  This  liberal  measure,  which  marks 
the  commencement  of  Catholic  emancipation  in  the  British  domin- 
ions, was  necessary  to  secure  the  allegiance  of  the  Canadians.  It 
was  strenuously  opposed  in  England  and  was  one  of  the  griev- 
ances complained  of  in  the  American  Declaration  of  Independence; 
but  its  results  were  most  beneficial.  The  Canadians  joined  heartily 
with  the  British  in  repelling  the  invasion  of  Montgomery  in  1775. 
After  the  peace  of  1783  many  loyalists  flocked  thither  from  the 
United  States ;  the  settlements  rapidly  extended  westward ;  and 
so  important  did  the  new  dominion  become  that  in  1791  Pitt 
divided  it  into  two  distinct  governments,  by  the  names  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  framed  upon  the  model  of  the  republican 
states  of  North  America.  In  each  he  established  a  legislative 
council,  nominated  by  the  Crown,  and  a  house  of  assembly,  elected 
by  the  })eople.  The  privileges  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  and  the 
right  of  self-taxation  v/ere  granted  to  the  Canadians.  The  British 
Parliament  retained  the  right  of  imposing  commercial  duties;  but 
the  produce  of  even  these  was  placed  at  tlic  disposal  of  the  Cana- 
dian legislature.  This  great  measure  w;;s  made  necessary  by  the 
success  of  the  Erench  Revolution,  for  a  similar  agitation  to  that 
which  had  destro}-cd  the  go\'crnmcnt  of  Erance  might  easily  ha\-e 
spread  to  the  Erench  population  of  Canada.  Nor  was  it  possil^le 
for  Canada,  with  the  United  States  by  her  side,  to  continue  a  roval 
government  on  the  old  model.  The  commerce  of  the  States  had 
increased  tenfold  since  their  emancipation;  the  States  threatened 
annexation,  and  the  only  way  to  retain  the  allegiance  of  the  Cana- 
dians was  to  prove  to  tlictn  that  they  would  be  better  off  in  con- 
nection with  the  British  Government  th.an  with  the  United 
States. 


133  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1776-1800 

The  independence  of  America  shook  to  the  ground  the  old 
colonial  system  in  the  British  West  Indies.  Trade  with  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  was  necessary  to  their  existence;  the  planters  had 
everywhere  joined  heartily  with  the  mother  country  in  resistance 
to  the  attacks  of  France  and  Spain,  their  hereditary  enemies, 
though  the  allies  of  their  commercial  connections  in  the  United 
States;  and  England  granted  them  a  restricted  commerce  with  the 
United  States,  with  Ireland,  and  with  foreign  colonies,  in  their 
own  vessels.  The  West  India  Islands  were  now  at  the  height  of 
their  prosperity,  and  henceforth  they  would  probably  have  declined 
in  the  natural  course  of  things  through  the  cultivation  of  their 
produce  on  the  American  continent  and  in  the  East  Indies,  even 
if  it  had  not  become  apparent  that  the  slave  system  had  grown 
into  a  public  scandal  too  vast  to  be  tolerated.  They  furnished  a 
million  and  a  half  a  year  to  the  imperial  treasury,  and  they  pos- 
sessed at  the  same  time  free  and  independent  representative  govern- 
ments of  their  own.  The  maintenance  of  the  African  slave  trade 
was  the  reward  with  which  England  requited  the  fidelity  of  the 
planters,  and  bitter  were  the  reproaches  with  which  they  perceived 
the  progress  made  by  the  anti-slavery  movement  at  home.  The 
condition  of  the  slaves  varied  in  the  different  islands.  Antigua 
had  given  to  the  blacks  the  privilege  of  trial  by  jury,  and  had  en- 
couraged the  efforts  of  the  Moravian  brethren  to  convert  them  to 
Christianity.  But  in  most  of  the  islands  the  negroes  were  treated 
as  mere  laboring  machines.  The  general  condition  of  the  negroes 
in  the  West  Indies  was  perhaps  better  than  in  their  native  country ; 
but  the  national  conscience,  once  awakened,  never  rested  until  the 
slave  trade  was  abolished,  and  the  way  thus  prepared  for  the  total 
extinction  of  this  hateful  institution  on  British  soil. 

The  foundation  of  the  great  settlements  in  Australia  is  not 
due  to  private  adventure,  like  that  of  Virginia,  nor  to  the  desire  of 
liberty,  like  those  of  New  England.  It  arose  from  the  necessity 
of  finding  a  penal  settlement  for  the  convicts,  who  could  no  longer 
be  sent  to  the  American  colonies.  At  first  they  were  sent  to  the 
coast  of  Guinea,  but  this  was  only  a  roundabout  way  of  putting 
them  to  death.  Captain  Cook  had  pointed  out  the  fitness  of  Botany 
Bay  for  a  European  settlement;  and  in  1788  Pitt  sent  out  Governor 
Philip,  who  commenced  the  convict  settlements  of  Sydney  and 
Norfolk  Island.  The  first  twenty  years  of  tlie  colony  were  years 
of  hard  struggles.     In   [805  a  third  settlement  was  formed  on  Van 


AMERICAN     REVOLUTION  133 

1776-1800 

Diemen's  Land.  The  French  made  a  show  of  taking  possession  of 
the  Australian  coast,  which  they  named  "  Terre  Napoleon,"  or  Na- 
poleon's land.  It  was  many  years  before  Australia  was  anything 
more  than  a  penal  settlement,  or  was  thought  to  be  in  any  way 
an  important  appendage  of  the  British  Empire. 

The  immense  wealth  drawn  by  France  and  England  from 
their  colonies  had  led  to  some  modification  of  the  Spanish  colonial 
system  even  before  the  epoch  of  inxlependence.  The  fleet  of  galleons, 
sailing  only  once  a  year,  accompanied  by  a  strong  guard,  had  been 
abandoned  at  the  peace  of  1748,  and  the  trade  was  carried  on  by 
register  ships,  which  sailed  as  often  as  occasion  required.  In  1765 
a  vast  change  took  place.  A  general  duty  of  six  per  cent,  was 
levied,  and  the  commerce  of  the  Spanish  islands  was  thrown  open 
to  all  Spaniards  trading  from  the  principal  ports  of  Spain.  In 
1774  the  trade  between  the  continental  colonies  themselves  was 
thrown  open;  and  in  1779  they  were  allowed  to  trade  on  their  own 
account  to  the  Spanish  islands.  The  success  of  these  liberal 
measures  was  such  that  the  customs'  duties  were  again  reduced  in 
1778  and  1784,  a  measure  which  stimulated  trade  more  than  ever. 
A  regular  service  of  mailships  was  established  with  the  mother 
country.  A  new  political  division  into  four  viceroyalties  had  been 
some  time  ago  introduced.  These  were  ]\Iexico  or  New  Spain, 
Peru,  New  Granada,  and  Buenos  Ayres.  New  Mexico,  Gautemala, 
Chile,  Caracas,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Santo 
Domingo  were  still  governed  by  captains  general.  Manila  was 
made  a  free  port,  and  a  Philippine  Company  was  established 
for  trading  with  it.  These  changes  were  not  made  too  soon,  for 
a  desire  for  political  reform  was  by  this  time  widely  spread 
among  the  South  Americans.  Their  domestic  government  was 
still  as  narrow  and  tyrannical  as  ever;  and  the  first  indication 
of  the  coming  political  storms  which  swept  over  them  was  given 
during  the  war  witli  England,  coincident  with  the  American  War 
of  Independence,  by  a  rex'olt  in  l~'eru  in  1780,  headed  l)y  a  de- 
scendant of  the  ancient  Incas  who  called  himself  Tupac  Amaru, 
or  Child  of  the  Sun.  In  this  country  tlie  old  nobility  was  still 
recognized;  the  remembrance  of  their  ancient  nationality  was  still 
cherished ;  and  this  bold  adventurer  nearly  succeeded  in  overthrow- 
ing the  Spanish  Gcn-crnnient,  ar.d  setting  liimself  on  the  throne  of 
his  forefathers.  But  tb.e  arms  of  the  Spaniards  prevailed  :  Tupac 
Amaru  was  defeated,  captured,  and  sentenced  to  be  torn  limb  from 


134  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1776-1800 

limb  by  wild  horses  in  the  square  of  Lima,  and  his  innocent  wife 
and  children  were  burned  alive. 

The  independence  of  America  had  not  taken  all  the  world  by- 
surprise.  The  merchants  and  politicians  of  England  were  not  so 
well  informed  as  some  in  France,  Indications  of  a  great  reaction 
against  the  colonial  system  had  been  long  given  in  the  writings  of 
the  French  political  economists.  Ouesnay  and  others,  followed  in 
England  by  the  great  Adam  Smith,  endeavored  to  show  that  the 
true  prosperity  of  a  state  consisted  not  in  its  overflowing  with  gold 
and  busying  itself  with  foreign  trade,  but  in  producing  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  gifts  of  nature  from  its  own  soil.  In  this  they  were 
but  partly  right :  but  they  were  on  safer  ground  when  they  pointed 
out  the  absurdity  of  the  system  which  kept  the  colonies  in  the 
condition  of  farms  of  the  mother  country,  and  to  be  worked  for 
its  benefit.  They  thought  that  the  colonies  should  be  regarded  as 
integral  parts  or  provinces  of  the  mother  country ;  and  they  fore- 
saw that  if  the  colonies  should  claim  to  be  considered  such,  it 
would  be  wise  for  the  mother  country  to  yield  to  them.  The 
French  did  not  go  beyond  this;  but  when  the  English  got  hold  of 
the  same  notion,  they  soon  saw  tliat  the  colonies  would  not  stop  at 
the  stage  of  provinces,  but  would  seek  independence.  Inquiries 
into  colonial  policy  were  stimulated  by  the  publication  of  the  great 
French  Encyclopedia ;  and  a  striking  commentary  upon  them  was 
soon  found  in  the  independence  of  the  English  colonies.  Since 
then  it  has  become  clear  that  every  successful  colony  tends  to  gain 
a  strength  of  its  own  which  leads  it  to  assert  equal  rights  with  the 
mother  country,  and  if  these  are  not  granted,  to  demand  its  in- 
dependence. Since  the  loss  of  the  North  American  states  it  has 
been  the  true  policy  of  England  to  grant  and  even  to  encourage 
these  claims,  and  to  lead  all  colonies  to  depend  upon  them.selves  as 
soon  as  possible,  rather  than  to  wish  to  keep  them  in  perpetual  sub- 
jection. The  French  philosophers  also  early  called  attention  to 
the  cruelty,  injustice,  and  false  economy  of  the  slave  trade,  and 
sugge'^ted  plans  for  the  gradual  emancipation  of  the  negroes. 
From  tliis  time  dates  the  rise  of  a  colonial  and  an  anti-colonial 
party,  the  former  upholding  the  old  system,  with  slavery  as  a 
necessary  accompaniment,  the  latter  abandoning  both.  For  France 
the  march  oi  e\-crits  in  Santo  Domingo  soon  settled  the  question  in 
favor  of  liberty:  but  it  continued  to  divide  the  politicians  of  Eng- 
land   for    thirty    years    longer.      After    the    abolition    of    slavery 


A  ]M  E  R  I  C:  A  N     REVOLUTION  135 

1776-1800 

(1835),  the  West  Indies  became  so  insignificant,  and  the  great 
agricultural  colonies  of  America,  Africa,  and  Australia  so  impor- 
tant, that  the  word  colony  seemed  almost  to  change  its  meaning. 
It  was,  perhaps,  in  France  that  the  moral  effect  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution  was  most  fully  felt.  New  forces  were  steadily  fer- 
menting in  that  country,  and  the  hostility  of  England  had  brought 
the  new  nation  of  America  from  the  first  into  a  close  alliance  with 
France.  But  all  western  Europe  was  deeply  moved  by  the  results 
of  the  American  war,  and  in  America  itself  a  new  and  lofty  na- 
tional feeling  had  been  produced.  Men  had  long  believed  in  the 
prophecy  contained  in  some  fine  lines  written  many  years  before 
by  Bishop  Berkeley,  in  a  fit  of  disgust  at  the  decay  and  stagnation 
which  prevailed  in  Europe: 

"Westward  the  course  nf  empire  takes  its  way: 
The  four  first  acts  already  past, 
A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day: 
Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last." 

This  prophecy  now  began  to  be  fuUilled ;  and  Europe  began  from 
this  time  to  awaken  from  a  state  of  apathy  or  delusion  and  to  feel 
that  if  the  lead  of  the  world  was  not  to  pass  from  her  hands  she 
must  keep  up  with  the  moral  and  political  progress  of  i\merica ;  to 
do  this  great  changes  were  necessary;  and  the  history  of  Europe 
ever  since  has  been  the  history  of  these  changes.  Tints  we  see  that 
the  independence  of  America  introduced  a  new  political  force  into 
the  world;  public  spirit  was  revived  in  Europe;  and  a  great  series 
of  events  soon  afterward  happened,  which  all  tended  to  destroy 
what  was  left  of  the  old  colonial  system.  We  have  arrived,  in  fact, 
at  the  events  of  the  French  Revolution  and  the  cjuarter-century 
which  followed  it. 


Chapter    X 

THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION.     1789 

THOUGH  the  bad  government  of  France,  and  the  obstinacy 
of  the  privileged  classes,  were  the  main  causes  of  the 
mighty  convulsion  called  the  French  Revolution,  great 
importance  must  be  ascribed  to  the  prevalence  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  philosophers,  and  the  power  of  the  moneyed  interest.  The 
New  World  contributed  in  many  ways  to  the  instruction  of  the 
Old,  The  philosophers  pointed  out  the  contrasts  of  the  old  system 
of  government  and  that  which  had  been  realized  in  the  United 
States;  the  condition  of  the  West  Indian  slaves  helped  to  illustrate 
the  doctrines  of  the  "  Rights  of  Man  " ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
those  who  had  grown  rich  in  the  plantations  and  the  colony  trade 
swelled  the  number  who  clamored  against  the  clergy  and  nobility, 
and  wished  to  see  the  old  country  itself  opened  to  their  enterprise. 
All  the  century  there  had  been  great  talk  of  new  colonies,  and  they 
began  to  see  that  there  was  room  for  colonization  in  France  itself. 
The  eyes  of  men  were  opened  by  the  New  World;  the  old  feudal 
laws  were  swept  away:  those  which  fettered  the  land  were  abol- 
ished ;  land  became  divisible  on  a  man's  death  among  all  his  chil- 
dren alike ;  the  lands  of  the  church  and  crown,  and  of  the  emigrant 
nobility,  were  sold ;  the  old  Mississippi  scheme  of  law  was  applied 
to  raise  money  for  the  needs  of  the  count^^^  The  chief  manage- 
ment of  public  affairs  fell  into  the  hands  of  men  who  had  been 
trained  in  the  conduct  of  mercantile  companies;  and  though  the 
change  at  first  reduced  tlie  country  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy, 
its  good  effects  were  seen  before  very  long.  But  the  visions  of  the 
Colberts  and  Choiseuls  vanished  forever.  In  the  colonies  the 
change  was  everywhere  to  the  disadvantage  of  France.  Santo  Do- 
mingo became  independent,  Louisiana  was  sold  to  the  United 
States  for  ready  money,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  colonies  were  swal- 
lowed up  by  llic  l^n.cHi^h.  Tlie  iM-ench,  following  the  maxims  of 
their  puliiical  ])liil< -.Mophers,  procured  substitutes  at  home  for 
colonial  produce ;  they  made  coffee  from  the  root  of  the  dandelion, 
and  sugar  from  that  oi  the  beet. 

13« 


FRENCH     REVOLUTION  137 

1789 

Long  before  the  French  Revolution  a  small  party  in  England 
had  been  earnestly  striving  for  j-jolitical  and  financial  reform.  The 
government  of  the  people  had  long  been  the  gain  of  a  few ;  and  now 
it  came  to  be  seen  not  only  how  little  substantial  good  colonies  really 
did,  under  the  old  system,  to  the  nation  which  possessed  them,  but 
that,  in  an  indirect  way,  they  strengthened  the  government  against 
the  people.  The  colonies  carried  with  them  an  important  official 
influence.  The  governorships,  judgeships,  generalships,  and  num- 
berless other  offices  which  they  made  necessary,  as  well  as  the  army 
and  navy  contracts,  which  they  largely  swelled,  were  great  pieces  of 
patronage.  The  maintenance  of  the  exclusive  commercial  system 
kept  the  moneyed  classes  attached  to  the  government.  Besides,  the 
colonies,  as  we  have  seen,  were  a  fertile  source  of  w'ars:  and  a 
weak  government  could  greatly  strengthen  itself  by  a  successful 
war.  All  this,  coming  after  the  independence  of  America, 
strengthened  a  rising  anti-colonial  party ;  the  efforts  of  tliis  party 
were  early  directed  to  the  abolition  of  protective  duties  in  favor 
of  British  West  Indian  produce.  It  took  more  than  half  a  century, 
however,  to  accomplish  this,  for  the  differential  sugar  duties  lasted 
until  1854.  From  the  French  Revolution  dates  a  growing  convic- 
tion that  the  old  Greek  system  of  independent  colonies  was,  after 
all,  the  only  true  one,  or  at  any  rate  the  only  one  practicable  on  a 
large  scale,  and  that  the  commercial  colony  system  must,  sooner 
or  later,  be  totally  abandoned. 

Before  the  h^xnch  Revolution  broke  out,  in  1789,  the  western 
part  of  Santo  Domingo  was  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  spectacle 
of  successful  industry  in  the  world.  The  plantations,  which  were 
numl)ered  by  thousands,  reached  to  the  very  tops  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  t(.nvn  of  Cap  I-'ranccois  .almost  rivaled  the  capitals  of  lui- 
rope.  The  planters  themselves  were  wealthy  and  intelligent.  The 
spirit  of  industry  and  enterprise  had  extended  to  the  free  blacks 
and  mulattoes,  many  of  whom  were  not  only  well  educated,  but 
had  visited  Europe,  and  had  imbibed  the  newest  European  ideas. 
They  were  more  numerous  than  the  ])lantcrs,  and  the  planters  were 
justly  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  their  taking  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment. The  philosophers'  doctrine  that  Santo  Uomingo  was  a  part  of 
the  mother  country  was  generally  acce])tcd.  and  the  plantei'S  pro- 
ceeded to  return  deputies  from  among  tlicmscKcs  to  represent  the 
island  in  the  National  Asscnihl}'.  The  mulattoes  and  free  blacks 
demanded  in  \ain  a  \oice  in  the  elections;  lor  it  was  known  that 


138  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1789-1800 

in  that  case  tlie  government  would  fall  into  their  hands,  the  slaves 
would  be  emancipated,  and  the  European  planters  as  good  as 
ruined.  But  the  national  assembly  at  Paris  remained  firm  to  the 
principles  of  equality  on  which  the  great  Revolution  was  itself 
based.  It  was  argued  in  vain  that  the  ruin  of  the  colonies  would 
follow ;  and  a  famous  saying  rang  through  the  assembly,  "  Perish 
the  colonies  rather  than  a  single  principle!  "  The  equality  of  rights 
was  decreed ;  and  the  news  of  this  decision  was  received  in  the 
island  with  despair,  wliich  soon  turned  to  hatred  of  the  new  French 
Government,  and  a  leaning  toward  England.  The  provincial  as- 
sembly of  Santo  Do^ningo  had  still  some  months  to  run  before  a  new 
election ;  but  it  became  known  that  the  whites  intended  to  resist  the 
new  law  by  force  of  arms,  and  perhaps  by  foreign  intervention. 
The  mulattoes  took  the  offensive,  and  on  August  23,  1791,  a  gen- 
eral rising  took  place  around  Cap  Frangois.  Before  two  months 
were  over,  1000  plantations  had  been  destroyed,  and  10,000  negroes 
and  2000  whites  had  perished  in  the  struggle.  The  rebellion  ex- 
tended to  the  south  and  west  of  the  colony ;  here,  however,  tlie 
planters  arrested  it  by  solemnly  engaging  to  execute  the  decree.  But 
the  alarm  had  spread  to  France ;  in  the  next  year  the  decree  was 
repealed,  the  belief  in  the  double-dealing  of  the  planters  was  con- 
firmed, and  the  insurrection  became  general.  Everywhere  num- 
bers and  intelligence  made  the  blacks  successful,  and  it  became 
clear  that  the  revolt  could  never  be  put  down  without  foreign  aid. 
Though  tlie  difficulty  of  reducing  the  Maroons  of  Jamaica 
might  have  shown  the  futility  of  such  an  enterprise,  the  English 
Government  quickly  responded  to  the  appeal  of  the  Haytian 
planters.  England  had  already  undertaken  the  task  of  repressing 
tlie  Revolution  and  all  that  belonged  to  it  in  Europe,  but  to  repress 
it  in  tlie  West  Indies  proved  a  harder  task.  With  the  aid  of  tlie 
I*"n,L,di.-^]i,  Port-au-Prince  was  retaken,  but  the  English  force,  small 
enough  at  first,  was  wasted  by  yellow  fever,  and  general  after 
general  was  obliged  to  reiire.  The  negroes  were  by  this  time 
unflcr  tlie  command  of  a  negro  called  Toussaint,  named  also  from 
hi-;  ])lantation  L'Ouverturc.  Born  in  1745.  and  originally  a  slave, 
he  had  become  free  and  ricli.  He  had  visited  France,  and  he  was 
a  man  of  wisdom,  refinement,  and  prudence.  He  proved  an  able 
general,  and  under  him  the  negroes  gained  eveiy  da}-  in  confidence 
and  e:q)cricncc.  1'!iey  gradually  drove  tlie  luiglish  from  their  posi- 
tions,  and    in    1-98   General   Tslaitland   evacuated   the   island,   and 


FRENCH     R  i:  \  O  L  U  T  I  O  N  139 

1789-1800 

England  afterward  recognized  ITayti  as  a  neutral  power.  Tous- 
saint  lost  no  time  in  organizing  the  infant  state.  He  procured 
assistance  from  l-'rance,  and  framed  a  simple  constitution.  The 
people  hailed  him  as  their  deliverer,  and  declared  him  president  of 
the  republic.  Thus  the  last  year  of  the  eighteenth  century  saw  a 
strange  sight — a  free  negro  state  erected  amid  the  ruins  of  the 
most  flourisliing  colony  in  the  West  Indies, 

The  example  of  the  blacks  of  Ilayti  caused  a  terrible  outbreak 
of  the  Maroons  of  Jamaica  in  1795.  But  their  hopes  of  exciting  a 
general  uprising  among  the  slaves  were  defeated  ;  the  island  was 
placed  under  martial  law,  and  their  attacks  were  successfully  re- 
pelled. Having  possessed  themselves,  however,  of  an  inaccessible 
place  called  the  Cockpits,  whence  they  sallied  forth  to  kill  and 
burn,  it  was  found  impossible  to  dislodge  them,  and  the  English 
commander  sent  to  Cuba  for  a  hundred  o-f  the  bloodhounds  in  use 
in  that  island  for  the  jnu'pose  of  tracking  runaway  slaves.  When 
it  was  known  that  these  had  actually  arrived,  they  made  proposals 
for  peace  on  the  footing  of  free  black  subjects,  which  General 
Walpole  accepted.  Had  the  English  been  as  liberal  as  the  Erench 
in  the  treatment  of  the  free  blacks  and  mulattoes,  and  had  the 
general  advancement  of  the  English  islands  been  equal  to  that  of 
the  Erench,  perhaps  there  would  at  once  have  arisen  free  black 
English  states  in  the  West  Indies,  The  negroes  of  the  English 
West  Indies  have  greatly  ])rogresse(l  since  their  ciuancipation.  and 
in  several  islands  they  have  formed  a  class  of  small  landowners. 
Elsewhere  tliey  have  become  a  free  peasantry. 

The  Erench,  under  Pichcgru,  conquered  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land in  1795,  and  this  led  to  mt)st  ini])(M-tant  additions  to  the  British 
Colonies.  The  Dutch  almost  ])referrcd  that  their  rich  colonies 
should  fall  into  the  hands  of  Ijigland  than  into  those  of  Erance, 
and  in  all  parts  of  the  world  great  ])ossessions — Ceylon,  ^Malacca, 
Cochin,  the  Cape  Colony,  and  Cuiana,  surrendered  to  the  British 
arms.  The  Cape  Colony,  Ceylon,  with  its  fine  harbor  of  Trin- 
comalee,  and  the  Dutch  settlements  on  the  Indian  coast,  completed 
the  chain  of  the  I^.ritish  h'^astern  ]'jn[)ire,  and  answered,  on  a  large 
scale,  to  the  principle  of  arriiiulissrjiicul  or  rounding  off  of 
boundaries,  which  was  sliatnelessly  executed  l)y  the  I'^rench  Re- 
public. The  successes  in  the  West  Indies  and  an  advantageous 
commercial  treaty  with  the  United  .States  contriI)uted  to  consoli- 
date these  conquests.     I'anda  and  Amboyna,  the  ancient  English 


140  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1789-1800 

settlements  in  the  Spice  Islands,  were  also  taken ;  but  all  these  con- 
quests, except  Ceylon,  were  restored  at  the  Peace  of  1802.  In  the 
next  year  (1797)  Godoy,  the  infamous  minister  of  Charles  IV. 
of  Spain,  concluded  that  peace  with  the  Directory  from  which  he 
received  the  name  of  the  Prince  of  Peace;  it  was  marked  by  the 
cession  to  France  of  the  Spanish  part  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  by 
the  immediate  conquest  of  Trinidad  by  the  English,  to  whom  that 
rich  island  has  ever  since  belonged,  and  the  principal  conquests 
from  the  Dutch  were  only  restored  to  be  permanently  occupied  at  a 
future  time.  The  immense  naval  power  of  England  was  never 
more  conspicuous  than  when  Bonaparte  was  threatening  an  inva- 
sion of  her  shores,  and  kindling  the  flames  of  rebellion  in  Ireland. 
But  this  happy  condition  of  things  lasted  only  a  short  time. 
The  French  republicans  had  not  bargained  for  the  loss  of  their 
estates;  dissatisfaction  became  general;  Bonaparte  wanted  work 
for  his  soldiers,  and  he  resolved  on  the  foolish  and  shameful  at- 
tempt to  reduce  these  brave  blacks  of  Hayti  by  force  of  arms.  In 
1 80 1  an  expedition  consisting  of  the  finest  soldiery  of  France  was 
dispatched  to  conquer  them.  The  negroes  defended  Cap  Franqois 
as  long  as  they  could,  and  when  the  French  entered  it  they  found 
it  a  heap  of  ashes.  Port-au-Prince  was  gained  by  treachery,  and 
the  same  means  were  employed  to  deprive  the  negroes  of  their  wise 
and  al)]e  general.  Leclerc,  the  brother-in-law  of  Bonaparte,  was 
in  command  of  the  expedition.  He  persuaded  the  negroes  that 
Bonaparte  was  anxious  for  their  freedom,  and  proved  to  Toussaint 
that  a  connection  with  liberal  and  regenerated  France  would  be  for 
their  benefit;  he  induced  the  negroes  to  lay  down  their  arms  and 
Toussaint  to  retire  to  his  country  seat.  No  sooner  was  this  done, 
however,  than  tlie  treacherous  Frenchman  had  him  arrested  and 
sent  to  France,  with  his  wife  and  children,  as  a  traitor;  and  this 
great  and  brave  man,  to  the  eternal  infamy  of  Bonaparte  and 
France,  perished  in  a  noisome  dungeon  at  Besangon  in  1803.  But 
Toussaint's  colleagues,  Dessalines  and  Christophe,  still  carried  on 
the  war,  and  tlie  rage  and  cruelty  of  the  French  knew  no  bounds. 
The  bloodhounds  were  fetched  from  Cuba,  and  actually  employed 
in  hunting  down  the  negroes.  But  justice  and  liberty  triumphed. 
Leclerc  was  dead,  and  his  successor,  Rochambeau,  beaten  at  St. 
]Marc,  v^as  driven  to  tlie  sea  in  1803;  and  the  soldiers  who  had  de- 
feated all  the  chivalry  of  the  Old  World,  finally  retreated  before 
the  despised  negroes  of  the  plantations  and  the  deadly  climate  of 


F  II  i:  N  C  II     REVOLUTION  141 

1789-1800 

the  tropics.  In  1804,  Dessalines,  a  negro,  like  Toussaint,  was  pro- 
claimed emperor.  Like  Toussaint,  whose  lieutenant  he  had  been, 
he  had  begun  life  as  a  slave.  The  assumption  of  the  imperial  title 
by  this  negro  adventurer  has  a  sad  and  strange  air  of  comedy. 
Dessalines  reigned  less  than  three  years,  for  he  was  assassinated 
in  1806. 

The  Dutch  East  India  Company  had  been  long  on  the  decline, 
and  it  subsisted  only  through  its  connection  with  the  Dutch  Gov- 
ernment. When  this  perished,  and  Holland  was  united  to  France, 
it  was  formally  abolished,  and  its  debts  and  possessions  became 
those  of  the  nation  ( 1795).  The  trade  with  continental  India  was 
thrown  open,  but  that  of  Batavia  and  the  islands  continued  to  be 
a  national  monopoly.  The  dividend  of  the  English  Company  was 
limited  by  Act  of  Parliament  to  ten  per  cent.,  and  its  affairs  had 
ever  since  its  first  territorial  conquests  been  looked  on  as  those  of 
the  nation;  but  the  English  are  always  unwilling  to  part  with  an 
old  institution.  As  the  company  was  a  convenient  instrument  of 
government,  it  was  allowed  to  subsist  for  many  years  longer.  The 
example,  however,  of  the  Dutch  in  throwing  open  the  trade  of 
India  was  followed  much  earlier ;  for  when  the  charter  was  re- 
newed in  1 8 14  the  monop(;ly  of  the  company  in  India  was  abol- 
ished, though  that  in  China  was  renewed. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  now  tlic  chief  general  of  the  French 
Republic,  conceived  one  of  the  grandest  designs  tliat  had  ever  oc- 
cupied the  mind  of  man.  It  was  not  indeed  new,  lor  }.[acedonian 
and  Turkish  conquerors  had  actually  executed  the  first  part  of  the 
same  project,  and  Choiscnl,  forty  years  before,  had  fixed  liis  eyes 
on  Egypt  as  the  foundation  of  a  l^^rench  empire  in  India.  Xow, 
if  ever,  the  time  was  ripe  for  its  execution.  Under  P.oriapnrte 
France  had  not  only  resisted  with  success  the  coalition  of  European 
powers  f(M-me(l  for  her  ruin  by  England,  but  had  xastly  increased 
her  territory  and  her  inlluence  on  the  luu'opcan  Continent.  J  Ic 
n(3w  proposed  to  roll  l)ack  the  wliole  tide  of  tlic  events  which  make 
up  the  present  history,  to  take  possession  of  Egypt  and  the  1"urki>!i 
Empire,  and  by  restoring  tlie  Indian  trade  to  its  ancient  chan'.v:ls 
to  ruin  the  trade  and  intlucncc  of  England  in  the  East.  Tie  \«.as 
\ictorious  on  land  in  I\g}'l)t  and  S}Ti;i.  but  the  k'nglish  destroyed 
his  ficet  in  the  IxiUk's  of  Aljoukir  and  the  Xile,  and  he  was  oblipcd 
to  return  to  I'rance.  The  iM'ench  t()ok  possession  of  tlie  strcmg 
fortress  of  Malta,   which  was   to  Iia\c  liccn   the   foundation-stone 


142  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1814 

of  the  French  Indian  Empire ;  but  the  EngHsh  drove  them  out,  and 
refused  to  evacuate  the  island  after  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in  1802. 
Bonaparte's  successes  in  Egypt  had  been  too  brilHant  to  be  for- 
gotten. The  French  were  still  dazzled  by  the  vision  of  a  French 
Eastern  Empire,  resting  on  Constantinople  and  Alexandria,  and 
the  English  refusal  to  leave  the  way  again  open,  by  the  evacuation 
of  Malta,  led  to  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1803.  Bonaparte's 
successes  on  the  Continent  continued  unchecked  for  ten  years 
longer,  but  he  made  no  further  efforts  in  the  East.  He  endeav- 
ored, however,  by  the  famous  Berlin  and  IMilan  decrees,  to  ruin 
the  trade  and  the  colonial  system  of  England  by  rigorously  exclud- 
ing her  manufactures  and  her  colonial  produce  from  the  markets 
of  Europe,  and  in  this  way  he  at  once  diminished  British  resources, 
and  stimulated  the  trade  and  manufactures  of  France  and  Ger- 
many. Besides,  the  orders  in  council,  which  the  English  Govern- 
ment was  obliged  to  make  in  self-defense,  helped  to  drive  the 
United  States  into  a  war  with  England.  Had  Bonaparte  suc- 
ceeded in  his  grand  designs  we  should,  perhaps,  have  seen  the 
great  English  trade  with  America  almost  destroyed  and  the  prog- 
ress of  the  United  States  seriously  checked.  We  might  have  seen 
the  commerce  of  the  East  once  more  poured  into  the  ports  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Italy  regain  her  ancient  wealth  and  splendor  as  a 
province  of  France,  the  Suez  Canal  would  have  been  made  a  half- 
century  earlier  and  France  might  by  this  time  have  become  the  mis- 
tress of  the  world.  A  similar  dream  had  entered  the  head  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  attempt  had  been  made  by  Solyman 
the  Magnificent,  nearly  three  hundred  years  before;  but  we  are  sure 
that  so  vast  a  superstructure  could  not  have  been  built  on  a  few 
brilliant  military  exploits,  and  sooner  or  later  the  balance  of  power 
must  have  fallen  to  the  nation  which  commanded  the  greatest  mass 
of  individual  industry  and  enterprise. 

The  most  extensive  changes,  however,  which  proceeded  from 
the  French  Revolution  happened  upon  Bonaparte's  invasion  of  the 
Spanish  Peninsula  in  1808.  Disappointed  by  the  English  in  his 
attempts  upon  the  Empire  of  the  East,  he  resolved  to  strike  a 
blow  for  the  less  valuable  but  still  magnificent  Empire  of  tlie  West. 
He  drove  King  Cliarles  from  IVIadrid,  and  made  his  own  brother 
h'-^cpli  King  (.f  Spain  and  the  Indies.  P)nt  the  Sjianiards  of  Amer- 
ica rcfuscfl  tins  new  sftvcreign,  and  by  the  time  the  old  king  \vas 
brought  back  to  ^Madrid  in  1814  they  had  tasted  the  sweets  of  lib- 


FRENCH     R  E  A'  0  L  U  T  I  0  N  143 

1800-1814 

erty,  and  were  determined  to  have  no  kint^  at  all.  Immediately 
after  the  deposit ii.m  of  Charles,  one  American  viceroyalty  after  an- 
other declared  itself  free.  The  movement  in  favor  of  liherty, 
however,  dates  from  an  earlier  time.  The  independence  of  North 
America,  the  increased  traffic  with  Europe  consequent  upon  the 
opening-  of  trade,  and  tlie  increased  wealth  which  this  brought, 
produced  a  general  wish  for  independence,  and  a  strong  leaning  to 
England.  When  Spain  declared  war  against  England  in  1796. 
England  had  encouraged  these  pretensions,  and  in  the  following 
year,  just  before  Abercroml)y  took  Trinidad,  Miranda  was  doing 
his  best  to  get  the  English  to  help  in  establishing  the  inde])endence 
of  the  Spanish  colonies.  11ie  Erench  believed  that  tlie  English 
would  try  to  recover  in  South  America  wliat  they  had  lost  in  the 
North.  Portugal  was  a  mere  dependency  of  theirs,  Brazil  was  a 
good  position  for  maintaining  a  standing  army.  The  insults  of 
France  and  the  tic  (~>f  commercial  interest  rendered  the  United 
States  in  the  north  friendly  to  England,  and  the  two  powers  might 
have  divided  the  \A'est  Indies  between  them,  America  taking  Cuba, 
equal  in  worth  to  all  the  rest  put  together,  as  her  own  share.  An 
official  of  the  Government  of  Cuzco,  in  l^eru,  had  tried  to  set  up 
a  free  government  in  1806.  He  failed,  and  died  on  the  scaffold 
in  the  srmie  year,  declaring  with  his  la.st  breath  that  only  an 
official  like  himself  knew  the  depth  and  atrocity  of  the  tyranny 
which  crushed  the  South  American  people,  and  that  God  had  de- 
creed its  speedy  end.  In  the  same  year  the  English,  under  Popham, 
occu])icd  IjUcuos  Ay  res,  and  became  masters  of  the  Plata  Ri\er  ami 
of  Montevideo.  An  inefi'cctual  revolution  was  attempted  in  Mex- 
ico as  soon  as  the  news  arrived  of  Charles's  de]K)sition:  but  it  was 
not  until  i8o(),  when  peace  was  made  between  England  and  the  old 
Si)anish  Government,  and  the  Spanish  ports  were  opened  to  Eng- 
lish -^liips.  that  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  real  struggle. 

In  tlie  course  of  the  Scc(Mid  luiropean  War  the  luiglish  car- 
ried their  maritime  supremacy  to  its  greatest  height.  In  1804  they 
took  l)en"icrara  once  more  from  the  Dutch,  together  with  Berbice 
and  I^sse(|nibo;  in  \>'n()  they  finally  occupied  the  Cape  Colony: 
in  1809  tliev  took  Ca\enne,  bocoiiiing  thereby  masters  of  the  whole 
of  Guiana  and  }>!artini(inc ;  in  1810  they  took  Guadeloupe,  and  the 
two  islands  of  l*ourl)on  ;uul  Mauritius  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the 
l'h"ench  nation  being  tliu-^  ki't  without  a  sinjdc  colony.  Amboyna, 
Banda,  ami  Ternatc  were  again  taken  from  the  Dutch;  in   181 1 


144 


COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 


1800-1814 


Batavia  surrendered  to  Sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,*  at  the  head  of  the 
Bengal  fleet,  and  England  was  mistress  of  the  rich  island  of  Java, 
and  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  conquest  of  Ceylon  was 
completed  in  1815  by  the  capture  of  Candy.  By  the  Peace  of 
1814  England  restored  to  France  all  her  conquests,  except  Tobago, 
St.  Lucie,  and  Mauritius.     To  Holland  she  returned  the  valuable 


Dutch  Indies,  that  is,  Java,  and  all  the  possessions  in  the  surround- 
ing islands,  retaining  Ceylon  and  the  Cape,  which  were  of  little 
significance  except  to  the  possessors  of  continental  India ;  and  as  a 
price  to  be  paid  for  a  portion  of  Dutch  Guiana,  England  con- 
structed for  the  united  kingdom  of  Holland  and  Belgium  a  line 
of  strong  fortresses  on  the  frontier  of  France.     Belgium  and  Hol- 

1  Lord    Minto,   governor   gcncr;;!    of    India,    under    whom    Anchmuty    served, 
accompanied  the  expediiion. 


FRENCH     REVOLUTION  145 

1800 

land,  however,  broke  asunder  in  1830,  so  that  Holland,  on  the 
whole,  got  but  a  bad  bargain. 

The  English  held  their  ground  firmly  against  the  rising  Mah- 
ratta  power  on  the  one  hand,  and  Tippoo,  the  formidable  Sultan  of 
Mysore,  on  the  other.  The  French  excited  Tippoo  in  1799  to  the 
final  war  with  England,  in  which  Seringapatam  was  stormed,  and 
this  turbulent  prince  killed ;  and  England  was  thus  mistress,  not 
only  of  Bengal,  but  of  all  Southern  India,  except  the  Mahratta 
States.  At  the  Peace  of  1802  Pondicherry  was  restored  to  the 
French;  but  a  great  war  broke  out  with  the  Mahrattas  in  1803, 
and  their  power  was  not  finally  overthrown  until  18 18.  They  had 
long  been  divided  between  the  interests  of  the  rival  houses  of 
Scindia  and  Holkar,  neither  of  which  was  able  to  prevent  England 
from  taking  Delhi  and  Agra,  and  making  a  pensioner  of  the  Great 
Mogul.  We  have  only  indicated  some  of  the  chief  events  in  the 
British  conquest  of  India.  The  British  power  there  lost  its  colonial 
character  as  soon  as  that  conquest  was  commenced  b}^  Clive;  after 
the  time  of  Bonaparte  and  Tippoo  it  was  never  challenged  by  any 
European  rival. 

We  have  already  traced  some  great  steps  in  the  decay  of  the 
European  colony  system.  The  first  is  the  general  decline  of  com- 
mercial companies,  whereby  the  rule  of  such  foreign  trades  and 
possessions  as  had  been  placed  in  their  hands  vested  again  in  the 
several  European  nations.  Most  of  the  companies  were  actually 
dissolved,  and  the  others  were  absolutely  subject  to  the  policy  of 
their  several  governments.  The  principal  nations  of  Europe  thus 
came  into  a  valuable  heritage,  which  had,  sooner  or  later,  to  be 
fought  for;  and  we  have  seen  how  the  best  part  of  it  was  carried 
off  by  England  and  secured  by  the  Definitive  Treaty  of  1763.  Had 
France  and  Spain  gained  the  victory  the  old  colonial  system  might 
perhaps  have  been  subsisting  to  this  day.  But  the  position  which 
was  thus  won  by  England  led  necessarily  to  changes  greater  still. 
The  colonies  had  grown  to  monstrous  proportions ;  it  was  impos- 
sible to  retain  them  in  the  old  narrow  commercial  trammels,  and 
in  the  struggle  to  do  this  they  easily  broke  away,  and  the  colonial 
system  of  England  toppled  to  the  ground.  Changes  of  an  impor- 
tant kind  were  now  necessary  in  Canada,  and  the  West  India 
Islands  began  a  slow  but  certain  downward  career;  new  settle- 
ments were  planned  in  other  seas,  and  some  of  tlie  old  ones  ac- 
quired a  new   importance.      But  the  old  character  of  the  colony 


146  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 


1800 


system  was  utterly  gone.  The  Definitive  Treaty  of  1763  is  there- 
fore the  epoch  of  dissolution  for  the  French  colonial  system,  and 
the  independence  of  America  (1776)  of  the  English.  The  wars 
of  the  French  Revolution  broke  up  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese. 
Bonaparte,  the  great  general  of  the  Revolution,  took  possession  of 
the  Spanish  Peninsula;  the  King  of  Portugal  renounced  his  old 
kingdom  and  fled  to  his  colony  of  Brazil ;  wdiile  the  Spanish  colon- 
ists revolted  from  the  usurper  whom  Bonaparte  placed  on  the 
Spanish  throne.  The  old  state  of  things  was  replaced  in  the  Penin- 
sula, but  it  was  too  late  to  do  this  in  the  colonies.  The  shock  of 
Bonaparte's  policy  came  when  the  time  w^as  ripe.  Though  in  dif- 
ferent degrees,  the  people  of  both  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America 
were  ready  for  their  independence :  and  when  once  the  bonds  were 
thrown  off  it  was  impossible  to  impose  them  anew.  Here  closes 
the  climax,  so  to  speak,  of  a  great  historical  drama.  From  the  last 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century  colonial  history  is  cast  into  a  totally 
different  shape.  The  greater  colonies  all  lose  their  European  char- 
acter, and  take  an  independent  one  of  their  own.  Historical  events, 
instead  of  being  guided,  so  far  as  events  ever  are  guided  by  any- 
thing, by  the  policy  of  Europe,  are  produced  by  the  play  of  local 
forces,  and  the  fortunes  of  the  different  colonized  countries  have 
little  or  no  general  connection. 


PART   II 

THE  MODERN   ERA   OF   COLONIAL 
HISTORY,    1800-1910 


Chapter  XI 

CANADA   AND   NEWFOUNDLAND 

THE  old  colonial  system  had  established  in  America  new 
English  and  Spanish  nations  which  at  last  won  their  inde- 
pendence and  thus  overthrew  the  system  under  which 
they  had  grown  up.  In  the  colonization  of  the  nineteenth  century 
England  alone  repeated  successfully  the  process  of  nation  building. 
Only  three  great  temperate  regions  overseas  remained  unoccupied 
by  a  dense  native  population  and  of  sufficient  area  and  resources 
to  maintain  powerful  nations,  and  all  three  fell  to  England,  two 
by  conquest  of  European  colonies  already  firmly  established  by 
other  nations,  the  third  by  discovery  and  settlement.  The  develop- 
ment of  these  three  new  English  nations  in  Canada,  South  Africa, 
and  Australia  was  the  greatest  achievement  of  nineteenth  century 
colonization. 

With  the  history  of  English  rule  in  Canada  we  open  what 
may  be  called  the  modern  era  of  colonial  history.  The  history  of 
the  United  States  properly  comes  first ;  and  a  history  of  the  modern 
colonial  era  cannot  be  properly  understood  without  studying  that 
of  the  United  States.  The  spirit  of  the  old  American  colonists, 
and  that  of  the  institutions  which  they  established,  has  penetrated 
more  or  less  into  even,'  corner  of  the  new  Europe.  In  the  natural 
course  of  things  the  influence  of  the  citizens  of  the  States  has 
been  deeply  felt  by  their  Canadian  neighbors.  For  a  whole  cen- 
tury the  people  of  Canada  have  stood  as  it  were  in  a  balanced  posi- 
tion between  England  on  the  one  hand  and  the  United  States  on 
the  oth.er.  If  Canada  had  locally  adjoined  England  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  would  have  become  a  fixed  member  of  the  British 
monarchy.  It  was  inevitable  that  Canada  should  take  its  political 
cast  either  from  England  or  from  the  United  States,  and  it  was 
equallv  inevitable  tliat  the  attractive  force  of  the  States  should  out- 
weigh that  of  England.  During  a  century  the  laws  of  nature  have 
been  silently  working.  The  sentiments  of  at  least  a  large  section 
of  the  people  toward   the   Englisl.   nirnarchy    have    suffered    no 

149 


150  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1763-1774 

change,  but  the}'  have  shown  no  desire  for  a  separate  monarchy  of 
their  own.  The  political  basis  of  the  colony  has  in  the  meantime 
gradually  assimilated  itself  to  that  of  the  United  States;  and  there 
is  an  important  party  which  cares  nothing  about  the  connection 
with  England ;  so  that  Canada  is  monarchical  only  through  its  tradi- 
tions. If  the  English  monarchy  ceased  in  Canada  there  is  no 
chance  of  the  establishment  of  any  other.  The  organized  democ- 
racy of  Canada  has  long  presented  a  very  different  state  of  things 
from  that  of  a  century  ago,  when  the  Canadian  seigneurs  peace- 
ably transferred  their  allegiance  from  Louis  XV.  to  George  IIL 
Canada  and  the  neighboring  colonies  have  followed  America  in 
establishing,  with  the  consent  of  the  mother  country,  an  independ- 
ent federation.  The  Australian  colonies  have  done  the  same  and 
their  example  will  probably  be  followed  in  South  Africa.  America 
has  thus  led  the  way  (i)  in  the  organization  of  colonial  communi- 
ties into  democratic  states,  (2)  in  the  union  of  these  states  into 
federations,  and  defining  what  questions  the  federal  govern- 
ment shall  deal  with,  and  what  shall  be  left  to  the  provincial 
governments. 

Canada,  at  the  time  of  its  conquest,  contained  about  65,000 
persons,  mainly  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  its 
tributaries.  These  were  either  French,  or  of  mixed  French  and 
Lidian  blood :  and  they  were  the  poorest  part  of  the  population,  for 
many  of  the  capitalists  and  landowners  went  back  to  France  at  the 
conquest.  After  1763  many  soldiers  who  had  served  in  the  war 
were  rewarded  with  grants  of  land,  and  the  British  Government 
did  what  it  could  to  turn  the  tide  of  emigration  in  the  direction 
of  Canada,  so  that  the  French  population  might  be  absorbed  in  an 
English  element.  The  King's  Proclamation  of  1764  promised 
the  Canadians  the  same  sort  of  constitution  as  was  enjoyed  by  the 
old  royal  go\'ernments  of  the  United  States ;  but  the  troubles  which 
soon  after  broke  out  in  Xew  England  caused  this  plan  to  be  sus- 
pended, and  Canada  remained  under  military  rule  until  1774.  The 
American  Revolution  was  now  on  the  eve  of  breaking  out,  and 
the  Angld-Canadians  petitioned  that  the  constitution  which  they 
had  been  pmmised  might  be  given  them.  The  English  Gov- 
ernment knew  that  the  Anglo-Canadians  were  as  great  lovers 
of  liberty  as  the  Americans,  whereas  the  French  Canadians 
were  di-posed  to  prefer  tlieir  old  form  of  government.  The 
French  were  in  the  majority ;  and  in  order  to  keep  Canada  on  the 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        151 

1774 

English  side,  in  the  struggle  with  America,  the  English  deter- 
mined to  maintain  as  far  as  possible  the  French  system.  Lord 
North,  therefore,  in  1774,  passed  the  Quebec  Act,  which  made 
Canada  one  royal  government  by  the  name  of  Quebec.  There  was 
no  assembly,  only  a  council,  which  might  be  changed  at  pleasure; 
the  old  French  land  law  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were 
established  permanently.  Until  the  troubles  with  the  American 
colonists,  what  regulation  of  the  colonies  existed  had  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  but  the  ministers  of  George  IIL 
resolved  to  hold  their  new  colony  tighter  than  those  which  were 
slipping  from  their  grasp.  A  Colonial  Secretary  was  now  ap- 
pointed, and  from  this  date  began  a  system  of  official  regulation 
at  home  which  was  quite  unknown  in  the  earlier  English  colonial 
era.  It  produced  great  trouble  and  mischief,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  large  colonies  it  has  now  been  completely  abolished.  The 
Quebec  Act  marks  the  beginning  of  this  rule  of  the  Colonial  Of- 
fice, as  well  as  the  introduction  into  Canada  of  the  inhuman  crim- 
inal law  of  England.  Oddly  enough,  however,  it  marks  also  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  religious  toleration,  for  it  dispensed  with 
the  statutor\^  "  Test "  which  at  that  time  excluded  all  Roman 
Catholics  e^■ery^vllcre  else  in  the  British  dominions  from  all  public 
offices.  A  third  of  the  members  of  council  were  now  to  be  French 
Canadians.  Hie  Anglo-Canadians  in  vain  protested  against  this 
measure,  whicli  sowed  the  seeds  of  dissension,  and  kept  back  the 
progress  of  the  colony  for  seventy  or  eighty  years.  It  was.  how- 
ever, well  adapted  to  gain  its  immediate  object.  The  clergy  and 
the  French  lantlowners  warmly  supported  tlie  British  Government, 
and  when  the  Americans  invaded  the  hand  and  besieged  General 
Carleton  in  Quebec  they  were  easily  repulsed.  The  legislative 
council  governed  the  country  with  closed  doors.  Their  policy  was 
selfish  and  tyrannical,  and  tlie  people,  both  English  and  French. 
sent  frerjuent  ])ctilions  to  the  home  government  asking  for  a  rep- 
resent ali\e  assembly. 

.After  the  acknowledgment  of  American  independence  great 
numbers  of  loyalists  withdrew  from  the  I'nited  States  and  settled 
in  Canada,  espcciallv  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  They  were 
UKXstlv  active  and  wc.'ihlu-  p(.'i>])]e  ::nd  the}"  wore  by  no  means  snb- 
-■er\-icnt  t^  tlie  hcino  l;i  iwrnnicnl.  It  must  ha\e  been  a  deep  and 
strong  feeling  which  led  these  men  to  prefer  exile  in  the  wilds  ot 
Upper  Canada  to  the  sunny  banks  of  the  Merrimac  and  the  Sus- 


152  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1774-1800 

quebanna.  They  were  a  thoroughly  EngHsh  race,  and  strongly 
attached  to  the  monarchy  for  which  they  had  fought;  it  was  im- 
possible for  them  to  remain  content  with  the  settlement  of  1774, 
and  they  joined  with  the  other  Anglo-Canadians  in  demanding  the 
repeal  of  the  Quebec  Act.  Pitt  now  divided  Canada  into  two 
parts,  the  Ottawa  River  being  the  boundary.  Eastward  of  this 
was  the  old  French  colony,  now  called  Lower  Canada,  including 
the  cities  of  Quebec  and  Montreal,  and  commanding  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  St.  Lawrence;  westward  was  the  English  colony  of 
Upper  Canada,  which  stretched  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Pitt  granted  to  the  Canadians  the  same  measure  of  liberty  to  which 
some  of  the  constitutional  states  of  Europe  are  still  limited.  Each 
province  had  a  governor  and  an  executive  council  appointed  by 
the  Crown,  and  also  a  law-making  body  consisting  of  a  legislative 
council,  appointed  by  the  crown,  like  the  British  House  of  Lords, 
and  a  representative  assembly,  like  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  government,  however,  in  both,  was  responsible  only 
to  the  Colonial  office  in  London,  and  was  independent  of  the  as- 
sembly. This  delusive  show  of  freedom  was  endured  for  half  a 
century,  and  was  only  replaced  by  something  more  real  after  a 
serious  rebellion.  Each  province  managed  its  legislative  affairs 
independently,  and  Upper  Canada  began  a  course  of  peaceful  and 
uninterrupted  progress.  Here  English  law  was  at  once  reestab- 
lished :  but  there  were  constant  difficulties  in  Lower  Canada,  which 
was  far  the  more  important  of  the  two  provinces.  Fresh  batches 
of  English  settlers  were  continually  arriving,  and  there  was  an  in- 
creasing minority  who  strove  against  the  bad  laws  and  narrow 
commercial  policy  which  the  colony  had  inherited  from  France. 
The  history  of  the  Parliament  of  Lower  Canada  is  the  history  of 
the  struggle  of  this  English  minority  against  the  conservative 
r'rcnch  majority.  In  1795  Lord  Dorchester  in  vain  tried  to  get 
the  latter  to  consent  to  a  modification  of  the  feudal  land  laws ;  but 
tlie  minority  succeeded  in  passing  some  good  laws  for  trade  and 
revenue.  The  French,  however,  increased  in  numbers  faster  than  the 
Engli.sli  immigrants,  and  the  Parliament  of  Lower  Canada  became 
gradually  more  democratic  and  more  determined  in  its  resistance 
to  all  innovation,  so  that  tlic  executive  were  often  driven,  in  tlic  inter- 
ests of  good  government,  to  intrigue  and  arbitrary  measures.  The 
liopc  that  the  mere  forms  of  tlic  English  constitution  would  speed- 
ily Anglicize  Canada  proved  vain:  it  was  the  commercial  connec- 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        153 

1800-1810 

tion  with  England  and  the  United  States  which  gradually  effected 
the  change.  Great  Britain,  when  at  war,  drew  largely  on  the 
commercial  resources  of  Canada,  and  the  Napoleonic  wars  greatly 
benefited  the  colony  during  the  early  years  of  its  freedom.  Ship- 
building, a  trade  which  can  be  carried  on  during  the  long  Canadian 
winter,  soon  flourished  greatly  at  Quebec,  and  it  extended  thence 
to  Montreal,  But  the  ignorant  majority  of  the  assembly  of  Lower 
Canada  continued  to  discourage  the  mercantile  connection  with 
England.  The  English  minority,  however,  supported  by  the  people 
of  Upper  Canada,  succeeded  in  improving  the  water  and  land  com- 
munication with  that  province.  The  people  of  Upper  Canada  in- 
curred a  heavy  debt  in  public  improvements  which  were  really  for 
the  benefit  of  both  provinces,  and  this  debt,  on  the  union  of  Canada, 
was  charged  upon  the  entire  nation.  In  after  years  Napoleon's 
Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  timber  trade, 
by  causing  the  removal  of  the  English  duties  on  Canadian  timber, 
and  the  increase  on  foreign  European  timber. 

The  strong  spirit  of  opposition  displayed  by  the  Lower  Cana- 
dians led  the  executive  more  than  once  to  oppressive  measures. 
The  distrust  of  the  Canadians  which  prevailed  in  England  and  the 
growing  hostility  of  the  United  States  led  in  1807  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  purely  military  governor  in  the  person  of  Sir  James 
Craig.  The  French  still  remember  Craig  as  a  despotic  and  un- 
popular ruler.  Ele  dissolved  the  assembly  in  1810;  he  removed  all 
the  French  militia  officers,  suppressed  the  newspapers,  imprisoned 
the  leaders  of  the  popular  party,  and  talked  of  disestablishing  the 
Catholic  priesthood.  All  these  things  retarded  the  progress  of  the 
province.  The  English  emigrant  found  himself  as  much  in  a  for- 
eign country  as  if  he  had  gone  to  Chile  or  Brazil,  and  would  have 
been  far  more  at  home  in  the  United  States.  But  the  worst  feature 
of  all  was  the  injustice  of  the  financial  policy  maintained  by  the 
French  majority.  As  in  France,  before  the  revolution,  the  clergy 
and  landowners  refused  to  bear  their  proper  share  of  taxation;  but 
the  peasantry  were  in  alliance  with  their  seigneurs,  and  the  public 
expenses  were  thrown  almost  entirely  on  the  shoulders  of  tlie  Eng- 
lish merchants.  The  landowners  refused  to  bear  even  the  common 
expenses  of  local  government,  such  as  building  jails  and  court- 
houses. Upper  Canada  had  now  quite  outstripped  the  province  of 
Quebec ;  most  of  the  tlour  and  timber  exported  was  furnished  by 
the  new  province,  and  it  became  clear  that  a  legislative  union  of 


154  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1810-1815 

the  two  provinces  was  the  only  possible  path  of  improvement. 
The  assembly  o})enly  pursued  a  retrogade  course,  and  the  legisla- 
tive council  withheld  its  consent  to  many  of  their  bills.  The  de- 
termined policy  of  Governor  Craig  was  perhaps  justified  by  these 
facts;  but  it  of  course  failed  to  ensure  Canada  against  the  dangers 
of  an  American  invasion.  Perhaps  the  best  result  of  his  rule  was 
his  report  of  his  administration,  which  conveyed  many  important 
truths  in  plain  language  to  the  British  Parliament.  Before  the 
American  war  broke  out,  he  w^as  replaced  by  a  governor  who  was 
instructed  to  adopt  a  very  conciliatory  policy,  and  under  him,  as 
we  shall  see,  the  French  and  English  cordially  united  a  second 
time  in  repelling  the  invaders. 

All  the  circumstances  which  induced  the  French  Canadians 
to  resist  being  Anglicized  concurred  with  great  force  to  induce 
them  to  resist  annexation  to  the  United  States,  where  English 
principles  were  carried  to  their  greatest  extent,  and  the  French 
Canadians,  so  long  as  the}"  w^ere  secure  from  what  they  thought 
actual  oppression,  were  quite  in  accord  with  the  government. 
When  the  war  broke  out,  in  1812,  Sir  George  Prevost  was  gover- 
nor of  Canada,  and  General  Brock  lieutenant  governor  of  Upper 
Canada.  The  Americans,  who  knew-  the  strong  Protestant  feeling 
of  Upper  Canada,  and  relied  on  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  English 
with  the  forced  alliance  of  the  French  Catholics  of  Quebec,  crossed 
into  Upper  Canada  from  Detroit  under  General  Hall ;  but  Brock 
forced  them  back,  and  besieged  Hall  in  Detroit  itself,  w'here  he 
capitulated.  Brock  fell  at  Queenston  in  a  successful  repulse  of 
another  attempt  made  by  the  Americans  upon  IMontreal.  The  at- 
tempts of  stronger  forces  against  Lower  Canada  were  equally 
unfortunate,  but  in  the  subsequent  years  the  attempts  of  the  Amer- 
icans upon  Upper  Canada  were  renewed  with  more  success.  They 
took  the  town  of  York,  and  the  neighboring  garrison  of  Fort 
George  at  Niagara.  The  Americans  were  generally  stronger  than 
the  I5ritisli  on  the  lakes,  but  they  lost  by  an  invasion  of  Lower 
Canada,  and  the  British  recovered  many  of  their  positions.  The 
line  of  hostilities  stretched  from  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Montreal.  Gradually  the  English  transferred  the 
war  to  American  soil,  and  took  from  them  Niagara,  their  strong- 
est fortress.  I'.lack  Rock,  and  Buffalo.  The  British  now  planned 
an  invasion  of  New  York  Slate  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  but 
they  l(jst  their  vessels,  and  were  repulsed  from  the  fort  of  Platts- 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        155 

1S15-1837 

burg.  Peace  was  made  by  England  and  America  in  1815.  In  this 
war  Canada,  with  only  a  handful  of  British  troops,  organized  its 
militia  in  such  a  way  as  not  only  to  defy  all  the  resources  of  the 
United  States,  but  to  carry  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country. 
We  must,  however,  be  cautious  in  making  deductions  from 
this  fact.  Canada  has  a  frontier  1500  miles  long,  which  is 
nowhere  completely  defensible,  and  a  military  force  such  as  the 
United  States  could  now  raise  without  difficulty  would  have  a 
much  better  chance  of  success.  The  War  of  181 2  was  undertaken 
by  the  States  with  the  view  of  conquering  a  wealthy  and  rising 
province  of  England,  but  it  had  the  effect  of  uniting  the  French 
and  English  Canadians,  and  of  checking  the  desire  of  independence 
which  had  begun  to  possess  the  former,  and  it  showed  that  a  cor- 
dial union  between  the  two  Canadas  was  necessary  to  check 
American  aggression. 

After  the  peace  of  181 5  the  stream  of  emigration  poured  more 
strongly  than  ever  into  both  the  Canadas.  In  Lower  Canada  this 
sen^d  to  increase  the  hostility  of  the  old  Jiabifanfs,  for  the  oppo- 
sition in  tlie  assembly  grew  more  and  more  bitter.  The  French 
Canadians  saw  themselves  being  gradually  swamped  by  the  tide  of 
English,  and  they  disputed  unceasingly  with  the  executive,  and 
complained  to  the  home  government.  Their  discontents  v»'ere  far 
from  being  groundless.  The  executive  and  the  legislative  council 
(or  upper  house)  were  composed  entirely  of  Crown  nominees, 
and  the  majority  of  them  were  aliens  in  every  respect  from  the 
majority  of  tlic  people,  just  as  in  the  American  provinces  of 
Spain,  the  colony  was  really  governed  from  home  by  pci^ple  who 
were  ignorant  of  its  circumstances  and  requirements.  The  local 
go\'ernmcnt  was  old-fasliii  mod,  corrupt,  and  expensive:  it  was  not 
responsible  to  tlic  asscml)Iy  for  its  acts;  the  ])eo])le  had  no  control 
whatever  over  the  natii>n;il  pro])erty.  and  the  h^rench  Canadians, 
fired  by  the  exam])le  of  tlicir  American  neighbors,  resolved  either 
to  impro\-e  it  or  to  sh;ike  it  off.  Tlie  national  party  was  led  with 
great  ability  by  ]\apineau,  whose  zeal  and  al)ilities  had  raised  him 
to  the  s])cakershi|)  of  the  assembly  at  tlie  age  of  twenty-six.  They 
em.bodied  tlicir  grievances  in  a  manifesto  addressed  to  the  English 
Govenimcnt,  v/liich  was  known  as  the  ''  Xinety-two  Resolutions," 
but  the  go\-eninicnt  refused  to  make  concessions.  Discontent 
spread  more  and  more  widely,  and  at  last  the  assembly  stopped 
the  supplies.     l'\)r  four  years  no  taxes  were  raised;  the  government 


156  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1837-1840 

officials  received  no  pay.  and  the  g-ovemment  itself  came  to  a  dead- 
lock. Arrests  were  made  for  sedition,  and  at  length,  in  1837,  the 
rescue  by  some  peasants  of  two  persons  who  had  been  arrested  be- 
came the  signal  for  open  rebellion.  The  outbreak  spread  to  Upper 
Canada,  where  the  population  had  increased  fivefold  since  the  peace 
of  1815,  and  the  latest  generation  of  settlers  found  themselves  prac- 
tically excluded  from  the  government  by  those  who  were  in  pos- 
session. The  spirit  of  revolt  was  actively  fomented  by  American 
"  sympathizers,"  but  the  rebellion  in  both  provinces  was  easily  sup- 
pressed. The  insurgents  gained  a  temporary  success  at  St.  Denis, 
but  tiiey  were  defeated  at  St.  Charles,  St.  Eustache,  and  Napier- 
ville.  Some  of  the  rebels  were  executed,  and  141  were  transported 
to  Australia.  The  English  people,  who  had  hitherto  known  but  little 
about  the  condition  of  the  colony,  were  shocked  at  the  fate  of  these 
unhappy  Canadians.  Besides  this,  it  became  known  that  hundreds 
of  Canadian  families,  disgusted  with  British  rule,  were  now  cross- 
ing the  frontier  and  settling  in  the  United  States.  Public  opinion 
was  now  thoroughly  awakened,  and  the  government  interfered 
between  the  colonists  and  the  Colonial  Office.  The  country  was 
put  under  martial  law,  and  the  old  constitution,  which  had  com- 
pletely broken  down,  was  suspended.  The  Earl  of  Durham  was 
sent  to  Canada  in  1838.  to  report  on  the  best  means  of  organizing 
a  new  government;  and  he  pronounced  in  favor  of  totally  reversing 
the  policy  of  North  and  Pitt,  and  treating  Canada  as  New  England 
had  been  treated — that  is,  letting  it  govern  itself. 

Even  before  the  Canadian  rebellion,  it  w^as  apparent  to  many 
enlightened  men  that  the  only  remedy  for  the  ills  of  the  colony 
was  the  union  of  the  two  Canadas  under  a  single  local  supreme 
government,  which  should  be  responsible  to  the  local  assemblies, 
and  therefore  practically  independent  of  England.  An  outcry  was 
raised  at  hcjme,  when  ]\Ir.  Roebuck  put  this  forth  at  the  time  of  the 
rebellion;  but  it  was  immediately  recommended  by  Lord  Durham, 
and  presently  accomplished.  The  two  Canadas  were  united  in 
1840 — an  epoch  which,  in  Canadian  history,  corresponds  to  1776, 
tlie  epoch  of  independence,  in  that  of  the  United  States.  Hence- 
forth tliere  was  to  be  a  single  government,  and  a  single  parliament, 
composed  of  a  legislative  council  of  at  least  twenty  life  members, 
and  a  lower  house  of  eighty-four  deputies,  elected  by  the  people 
every  four  years,  forty-two  being  elected  in  each  province.  This 
equal  division  of  the  representation  was  apparently  unfair  to  the 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        157 

1840-1848 

French  Canadians,  who  far  outntimhered  the  Engh'sh  of  tlie  Upper 
Province:  but  it  was  the  secret  of  the  success  which  attended  tlie 
scheme,  for  tlie  French  would  be  hencefortli  permanently  outnum- 
bered in  the  assembly.  The  less  intellig-ent  amoni:^  the  French  pro- 
tested stronc^ly  against  the  Union,  but  the  voice  of  the  old  assembly 
was  now  silenced.  The  French  Canadians  did  not  see  how  vast  a 
concession  was  made  to  them  by  the  grant  of  responsible  govern- 
ment, and  how  necessary  it  was  to  temper  it  by  giving  some  moder- 
ate party  a  preponderance.  The  boundaries  of  the  electoral  dis- 
tricts were  revised ;  the  Crown  lands,  which  in  Lower  Canada  were 
very  valuable,  were  taken  by  the  nation,  and  a  civil  list  was  granted 
instead  of  them.  Both  these  measures  weakened  the  French  party : 
their  populous  districts  now  counted  for  no  more  than  the  thinly- 
peopled  ones  of  Upper  Canada,  and  the  Upper  Province  con- 
tributed nothing  but  its  debt  to  the  new  financial  arrangements. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  French  party  now  had  a  real  voice  in  con- 
trolling the  government,  and  the  justice  of  the  compromise  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  thereafter  the  Canadas  were  almost  uiu'n- 
terruptedly  tranquil  and  prosperous.  Great  Britain  guaranteed 
them  loans  for  developing  their  resources ;  the  populati(^n  has  in- 
creased until  it  has  become  much  greater  than  that  of  the  thirteen 
colonies  of  America  at  the  time  of  their  revolt;  and  local  self-gov- 
ernment on  the  English  model  has  been  substituted  for  the  sei- 
gneurial  tenure.  The  P^ench  population  in  Lower  Canada  has 
submitted  to  the  loss  of  its  domination,  and  entered  peacefully  into 
equal  rights  with  the  English.  It  has  not,  howe^'er,  disappeared  in 
the  midst  of  the  English  element,  for  the  French  Canadians  are  still 
as  fondly  attached  as  ever  to  their  own  laws  and  manners,  and 
form  a  ccMiipact  mass  of  more  than  a  million  souls.  The  Act  of 
LTnion  had  attempted  to  Anglicize  I-'rcnch  Canada  by  requiring  the 
use  of  the  I-Jiglisli  language  alone  in  all  legislative  records.  This 
policy  was  abandoned  and  the  concurrent  use  of  the  French  lan- 
guage permitted  in   184S. 

Tn  each  of  the  Canadas  there  existed  a  Conservative  or  Torv, 
and  a  Liberal  or  Reforming  party.  In  Upper  Canada  the  C(»nserva- 
tives  were  mainly  the  ofticials  and  their  friends,  who  had  hitherto 
C(^ntrollcd  the  govcrnuKMit  by  a  league  called  the  "  Family  Com- 
pact." The  chief  nirm  i^i  ihe  parly  was  .Sir  Allan  M'Xab.  Their 
chief  principle  was  at  first  attachment  to  the  Colonial  othce  in 
London,  and  a  determination  to  nullify  the  Union  by  resisting  the 


158  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1848-1849 

attainment  of  really  responsible  government;  they  named  them- 
selves "  Loyalists,"  and  tlieir  opponents  "  Rebels."  In  Lower 
Canada  the  parties  were  divided  in  much  the  same  way;  but  here 
the  Liberals  had  a  strong  nucleus  in  the  compact  body  of  French 
inhabitants.  The  difficulty  of  uniting  the  Liberals  of  both  prov- 
inces at  first  gave  the  power  to  the  Conservatives.  But  Lord  Syden- 
ham, the  first  governor  under  the  Union,  found  it  impossible  to 
carry  on  the  government  with  a  Conservative  cabinet ;  and  the  Lib- 
erals of  both  provinces  now  saw  the  necessity  of  uniting.  Under 
Lord  Sydenham's  successors.  Sir  Charles  Bagot  and  Lord  Met- 
calfe, the  Liberals  were  in  power,  and  they  began  a  great  series  of 
internal  reforms.  They  abolished  much  of  the  old  penal  code,  re- 
formed the  judicature,  organized  municipal  government,  made 
laws  for  education,  and  began  important  public  works.  They  com- 
pelled Governor  Aletcalfe,  after  a  long  struggle,  to  yield  to  the 
ministry  the  patronage  of  public  appointments.  The  seat  of  gov- 
ernment had  been  fixed  by  the  Union  at  Kingston,  then  a  mere  vil- 
lage in  Upper  Canada;  the  majority  of  the  Liberals  removed  it  to 
^Montreal,  the  commercial  center  of  the  country.  This  question  of 
the  capital  was  one  of  several  which  still  divided  the  two  provinces, 
without  regard  to  party  principles,  and  which  now  and  then  pro- 
duced a  Conservative  majority  from  Upper  Canada,  while  in  Lower 
Canada  the  Liberals  always  held  their  ground.  As  time  went  on, 
the  Conservatives  gradually  reconciled  themselves  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Union,  and  contented  themselves,  like  the  Conservatives 
at  home,  with  becoming  a  mere  counterbalance  to  the  more  ad- 
^•anced  party.  In  ^Metcalfe's  time  the  Conservatives  came  again 
into  power,  though  supported  in  only  a  slight  majority,  and  by 
questionable  means;  and  the  governor  and  his  advisers  were  en- 
gaged in  a  long  and  bitter  struggle  with  the  people.  It  was  not 
until  the  time  of  Lord  Elgin  that  the  Liberals  obtained  a  second 
time  a  decided  preponderance,  and  Canadian  history  took  a  fresh 
turn  with  the  return  to  power  of  their  leaders,  Baldwin  and  La- 
fontaine,  in  1S48. 

'I'lic  dilTiculties  which  arose  witli  the  United  States  on  the 
question  of  the  Oregcjn  boundary  again  led  to  tlie  appointment  of 
a  military  governor,  in  the  person  of  Lord  Cathcart  (1845-1847). 
Pjiit  the  question  was  peaceably  compromised  and  nothing  of 
ini])r)rtan(.-e  occurred  until  tlie  governorship  of  Lord  l^lgin  (  iP'47- 
1N54).     'I  liis  great  practical  statesman  ma}-  be  said  to  lia\'e  organ- 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        159 

1848-1849 

ized  Canada  into  a  modern  nation.  He  reformed  and  increased 
the  representation,  improved  tiie  administration  of  the  law,  com- 
pleted the  abolition  of  the  seigneurial  tenure,  and  secularized  the 
lands  of  the  cleroy.  The  French  population  increased  very  fast, 
and  thousands  were  at  this  time  obliged  to  emigrate  every  year 
to  the  United  States,  while  there  were  still  numerous  tracts  of  un- 
cultivated land  in  the  eastern  townships  which  had  been  wastefully 
granted  away  to  private  owners.  Many  of  the  poor  Canadians 
had  "  squatted  "  on  their  lands.  Lord  Elgin  tried  in  vain  to  give 
these  squatters  a  right  of  ownership;  but  he  threw  open  the  Crown 
and  Church  lands  all  over  the  country  to  the  peasantry  at  very 
moderate  prices.  He  greatly  improved  the  navigation  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  so  that  ocean  steamers  might  rcacli  the  quays  of  Mont- 
real. In  his  time  railways,  telegraphs,  and  large  ship  canals  were 
made  in  the  interior;  and,  greatest  of  all,  the  British  Parliament, 
in  1849,  threw  the  trade  of  Canada  open  to  all  the  world,  by 
which  means  the  revenue  from  the  customs  was  quadrupled.  One 
of  tlie  last  acts  of  his  government  was  the  Commercial  Treaty  with 
the  United  States,  which  did  more  than  anything  else  to  advance 
the  commerce  of  Canada.  From  his  time  dates  the  establishment 
of  a  regular  steam  communication  with  Europe.  He  also  organized 
an  excellent  system  of  immigration.  When  he  quitted  Canada 
he  left  its  population  double  what  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  Union. 
Industry  had  risen  to  high  importance,  and  Canadian  manufac- 
turers already  looked  forward  to  competing  in  their  own  market 
with  those  of  Bradford  and  Leeds. 

Lord  Elgin's  administration  was  not  free  from  serious  party 
struggles.  Though  a  Conservative  by  education  and  sentiment, 
he  deemed  it  his  tluty  to  throw  the  whole  weight  of  his  influence 
into  the  scale  of  Canadian  Liberalism.  He  sometimes  publicly 
addressed  the  iM'cncIi  rc[)rescntalives  in  their  own  language,  and 
in  many  otiicr  wa}'S  he  succeeded  in  winning  their  cnnfulence  in 
a  greater  degree  tlian  any  of  his  predecessors.  It  was  now  ten  years 
since  the  Ivehcllion;  and  Lord  I'Jgin's  ministry  passed  an  act  for  a 
general  amnol}'  in  iS4<),  and  for  an  indemnity  to  those  who  had 
suffered  b}'  the  violence  with  wliich  the  Rebellion  was  suppressed. 
'^Hie  Conser\-ati\es  saw  in  the  latter  measure  an  o])porlunity  of 
recovering  the  ga\)un(l  which  tliey  had  lost.  They  revived  the  old 
cry  of  "  Loyali>ts  "  and  "  Rebels";  and  when  the  governor's  con- 
sent had  been  given,  they  excited  the  mob  of  Montreal  to  serious 


160  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1849-1856 

riots.  The  mob  entered  the  parHament  house  and  drove  out  with 
showers  of  stones  the  members  who  were  sitting.  They  broke 
up  the  benches,  and  seized  the  mace;  and  one  of  the  ringleaders 
entered  the  chair,  and  dissolved  the  parliament  in  the  name  of 
the  people.  They  finished  by  setting  fire  to  the  building,  which 
was  burned  down,  together  with  the  colonial  archives  and  a  valua- 
ble libraiy.  But  the  Liberals  of  the  colony,  who  numbered  three- 
fourths  of  the  population,  rallied  round  the  government ;  and  even 
the  Conservatives  of  Toronto  and  Kingston  repudiated  the  acts  of 
the  Opposition.  The  Indemnity  Law  is  remarkable  for  having 
been  the  occasion  on  which  the  right  of  the  Canadians  to  manage 
their  own  affairs  was  finally  established.  The  Opposition  appealed 
to  the  Home  Parliament,  but  in  spite  of  the  strong  support  of  Glad- 
stone and  Disraeli,  the  majority,  led  by  Russell,  Roebuck,  and 
Peel,  affirmed  the  decision  of  Lord  Elgin,  and  thereby  convinced 
the  Canadians  that  the  independence  which  they  had  received  was 
no  empty  show.  Montreal  now  ceased  to  be  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  parliaments  for  some  time  met  alternately  at  Toronto 
and  at  Quebec.  The  discontented  Conservatives  now  joined  with 
the  extreme  Democrats,  or  "  Clear-grits,"  to  form  a  party  in  favor 
of  annexation  to  the  United  States. 

The  legislative  council,  or  upper  house,  was  made  elective 
in  1856,  the  old  members  retaining  their  seats  for  life,  and  forty- 
eight  additional  ones  being  elected  by  electoral  colleges,  chosen  by 
the  people,  for  a  term  of  eight  years.  This  change  had  been  long 
demanded  by  public  opinion,  but  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  answered 
the-  hopes  of  its  promoters.  The  position  of  political  parties  was 
now  greatly  changed.  The  Conservatives  had  accepted  the  prin- 
ciples of  moderate  reform  and  of  truly  responsible  government; 
but  the  Liberals  drew  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  principles  of  the 
"  Clear-grits."  They  were  opposed  to  the  Catholics,  and  were  in 
favor  of  adjusting  representation  to  population,  without  regard  to 
the  line  which  separated  the  two  provinces,  of  secularizing  educa- 
tion, of  ceasing  to  pay  for  the  redemption  of  the  seigneurial 
rights,  diminishing  the  grants  for  the  colleges  and  higher  schools, 
and  increasing  tliose  for  the  lower  schools.  Canada  was  now  thor- 
oughly democratized ;  and  though  the  change  had  been  on  the 
whole  most  benericial.  it  liad  introduced  a  low  state  of  political 
morality.  The  arts  of  ])riljery  and  corruption  and  the  fabrication 
of  votes  were  well  understood,  nor  could  any  electoral  law  repress 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        161 

1857-1867 

them.  The  two  chambers  found  it  impossible  to  agree  on  a  per- 
manent site  for  the  capital;  and  in  1857  this  question  was  referred 
to  the  Queen,  who  chose  Ottawa,  a  village  situated  on  the  boun- 
dary of  the  two  provinces.  This  choice  excited  general  surprise, 
for  nine-tenths  of  the  Canadians  would  certainly  have  voted  against 
it;  the  Canadian  ministry  were  defeated  on  the  motion  for  accept- 
ing it,  and  had  to  retire.  But  after  a  long  period  of  debate  it  was 
felt  that  the  Colony  could  not  gracefully  reverse  the  Queen's  deci- 
sion, and  it  was  afhrmed  by  a  small  majority.  These  questions 
belong  to  the  viccroyalty  of  Sir  Edmund  Head,  who  quitted  Can- 
ada in  1 86 1.  In  his  time  was  first  mooted  the  question  of  com- 
bining all  the  British  possessions  in  America  into  one  dominion. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Viscount  Monck   (1861-1867). 

Canada  is  so  important  that  it  makes  the  history  of  the  rest 
of  the  British  Colonies  in  America  seem  insignificant ;  and  it  has 
ended  by  absorbing  all  of  them.  Besides  Canada,  the  Definitive 
Treaty  of  1763  had  put  Great  Britain  in  possession  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  of  Cape  Breton  and  Prince  Edward  Island.  Xova 
Scotia  had  been  ceded  at  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713;  New 
Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward  Island  were  at  first  annexed  to 
Nova  Scotia,  but  they  were  afterward  constituted  separated  col- 
onies, and  Cape  Breton  Island  was  added  to  Nova  Scotia  instead. 
These  colonies  are  known  as  the  maritime  provinces.  None  of 
them  were  thought  of  much  importance,  until  the  growth  of  Can- 
ada drew  attention  to  them.  In  1755  the  English  drove  out  all  the 
Erench  from  Nova  Scotia.  Some  of  them  settled  in  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Cape  Breton ;  and  their  descendants  remain  there  to  this 
day  in  distinct  villages  by  the  name  of  Acadians.  At  the  time  or 
the  Definitive  Treaty  the  colonists  of  Nova  Scotia  were  mostly  the 
ovcrtlow  of  the  Nortliern  States,  together  with  some  Scotch  and 
Irish  immigrants.  The  Nova  Scotians  submitted  to  be  taxed  by 
England,  and  took  no  part  in  the  struggle  for  independence,  and 
in  1776  they  were  joined  by  ten  thousand  loyalists  from  Boston. 
By  the  end  of  the  war  in  1783  the  numl)er  of  these  emigrants  was 
doubled.  It  is  mainly  to  these  Americans  that  the  prosperity  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Xova  Scotia,  like  tluit  of  Upper  Canada,  is 
due.  The  history  of  the  otlicr  maritime  provinces  vcrv  much  re- 
sembles that  of  Xo\'a  Scotia.  They  all  had  their  councils  and 
legislative  assemblies  granted  to  them  I)y  Cleorge  III.:  but  these 
had  little  control  over  the  destinv  of  the  colonies.     The  whole  of 


162  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1840-1867 

the  land  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  for  instance,  was  given  away 
by  the  king  in  one  day.  The  same  thing  happened  in  the  others; 
and  in  order  to  compete  with  other  fields  of  emigration  the  govern- 
ments have  since  been  obliged  to  buy  the  land  back  from  the 
grantees,  who,  in  many  cases,  made  no  use  of  it,  and  sell  it  at  a 
comparatively  high  price  to  the  immigrants. 

In  the  period  between  the  legislative  union  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  in  1840  and  the  establishment  of  the  federal  Do- 
minion of  Canada  in  1867,  important  constitutional  developments 
occurred  in  all  the  British  North  American  provinces.  In  all  of 
them  parliamentary  government  on  the  English  model  was  estab- 
lished after  much  controversy.  The  royal  governors  were  slow 
to  yield  their  power  into  the  hands  of  the  legislatures,  but  in  the 
end  the  representatives  of  the  people  were  everywhere  successful 
and  it  became  an  established  principle  that  the  government  must 
be  carried  on  by  responsible  ministers  representing  the  majority 
of  the  lower  legislative  chamber,  and  if  the  ministers  ceased  to  so 
represent  the  majority  they  must  give  place  to  others  who  fulfilled 
that  requirement.  In  the  Canadas  all  went  smoothly  for  two  years, 
after  their  union  in  1840,  under  the  governorship  of  Lord  Syden- 
ham and  Sir  Charles  Bagot.  Lord  ]\Ietcalfe,  the  third  governor  of 
the  united  provinces,  w^as  soon  in  difiiculties  with  the  assembly 
on  a  question  of  patronage.  His  previous  service  had  been  in 
India,  a  poor  school  for  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  free  institutions. 
He  held  that  a  governor's  business  was  to  govern,  that  he  was  al- 
ways responsible  to  the  Crown  for  his  official  acts,  and  therefore 
could  not  be  in  an  equal  sense  responsible  to  the  assembly,  since 
no  man  can  serve  two  masters.  Such  also  was  the  view  of  the 
British  Colonial  Office  for  many  years  after  Lord  Durham's  re- 
port. Lord  Metcalf  declined  to  seek  the  advice  of  the  ministers 
concerning  appointments  to  office.  71ie  ministers,  all  save  one,  im- 
mediately resigned  and  a  new  ministry  w'as  formed,  after  great 
delay  and  difficulty,  to  sustain  the  governor.  Its  appeal  to  the 
people  was  sup])i)rlcd  by  all  the  royal  infiuence  and  resulted  in  a 
slender  majority  in  the  assembly,  won  at  the  cost  of  renewed 
bitterness  against  tb.c  governor  and  the  British  Government.  After 
Lord  Metcalfe's  death  and  the  brief  governorship  of  Lord  Cath- 
cart,  the  Whig  ministry  in  England,  headed  by  Lord  Russell,  sent 
out  Lord  I'^lgin  as  governor  of  the  Canadas.  The  policy  of  free 
trade  had  recently  won  its  decisive  victory  in  England,  the  comiuer- 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        163 

1836-1851 

cial  restrictions  of  the  old  colonial  system  were  evidently  doomed, 
and  it  was  time  for  its  political  restriction  to  be  abandoned  like- 
wise. Lord  Elgin  found  a  conservative  ministry  in  office,  but  a 
new  election  in  1848  gave  a  large  majority  to  the  Liberal  party. 
and  the  governor  established  a  precedent,  which  was  thereafter 
followed,  by  inviting  Lafontaine,  the  Liberal  leader,  to  form 
a  ministry  instead  of  choosing  the  ministers  himself.  He  thus,  in 
behalf  of  Great  Britain,  stood  aloof  from  party  and  party  govern- 
ment in  the  colony,  as  the  Crown  is  accustomed  to  do  in  the  United 
Kingdom  itself,  and  thereby  conceded  the  right  of  the  colony  to 
self-government  in  the  executive  as  well  as  in  the  legislative 
department. 

Similar  contests  between  governor  and  assembly  occurred  in 
the  maritime  provinces.  In  New  Brunswick  the  legislature  got 
control  of  the  colonial  revenues  in  1836.  and  in  1839  the  lieutenant 
governor,  Sir  John  Harvey,  officially  conceded  that  the  heads  of 
departments  held  their  offices  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  legis- 
lature. His  successor.  Sir  William  Colebrook,  attempted  to  ap- 
point a  provincial  secretary  without  consulting  the  ministers,  sev- 
eral of  whom  immediately  resigned.  Their  protest  was  sustained 
by  the  Colonial  Office  in  England  and  complete  self-government 
was  thereby  secured.  In  Xova  Scotia  the  struggle  was  more  bitter. 
In  1838  the  mother  country  recognized  the  right  of  the  colonial 
assembly  to  control  the  provincial  revenues  and  granted  other 
liberal  reforms.  The  assembly  next  asserted  its  right  to  full  execu- 
tive control  through  ministers  responsible  to  it  alone.  This  was 
resisted  by  the  governor,  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  and  his  successor. 
Lord  Ealkland,  in  combination  with  intlucntial  Conservatives  in 
the  province.  Here  as  in  Upper  Canada  the  chief  opponents  of 
popular  government  were  the  descendants  of  the  American  loyalists 
and  members  of  the  Anglican  Church.  After  a  bitter  controversy 
the  reform  ministry  in  England  appointed  Sir  Jolin  Harvey  to 
succeed  Lord  l^dkland,  antl  cabinet  government  by  ministers  re- 
sponsible to  the  asMiiiljly  was  securely  established.  In  Prince 
Edward  Island  the  same  step  was  taken  in   1851. 

In  this  manner  all  the  powers  (>f  the  colonial  governments 
were  transferred  to  representatives  of  ilie  people,  and  these  powers 
were  soon  enlarged.  In  1846  the  colonics  were  given  control  of 
duties  on  imports,  and  in  1849  the  imperial  Navigation  Act  was 
repealed,  thus  throwing  open  the  colonial  ports  to  the  vessels  of 


164f  COLONIES    OF    THE    WORLD 

1851-1864 

all  nations.  Control  of  the  post  office  had  been  conceded  to  Canada 
shortly  after  the  Act  of  Union.  The  colonies  could  now  freely 
adopt  such  a  commercial  policy  as  was  best  suited  to  their  interests 
without  regard  to  those  of  the  mother  country,  and  they  soon 
exercised  this  power. 

Having-  attained  complete  popular  self-government,  the  Brit- 
ish North  American  provinces  again  followed  the  example  of  the 
United  States  by  combining  in  a  federal  union.  This  had  been  sug- 
gested soon  after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Lord  Durham  had  contemplated  it  in  1839,  but  at  the 
eleventh  hour  he  was  obliged  to  confine  himself  to  a  union  of  the 
two  Canadas,  and  for  some  years  no  further  efforts  w^ere  made  in 
the  direction  of  a  general  union.  Finally  two  distinct  movements 
in  the  maritime  provinces  and  in  the  Canadas  united  to  bring  it 
about.  In  1861  a  resolution  looking  toward  the  union  of  the 
maritime  provinces  was  adopted  by  the  legislature  of  Nova  Scotia 
under  the  leadership  of  Howe,  a  Liberal,  and  in  1864,  under 
his  Consen^ative  successor;  Dr.  Tupper  (afterward  Sir  Charles), 
a  conference  of  delegates  from  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island  was  called  to  meet  at  Charlottetown  for 
this  purpose.  In  the  meantime  the  racial  antagonism  between  the 
French  and  English  had  made  the  constitution  of  the  Canadas 
unworkable.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Act  of  Union,  passed 
in  1840,  had  given  the  French  province  of  Lower  Canada  equal 
representation  in  the  assembly  with  the  English  province  of  Upper 
Canada,  though  the  population  of  the  latter  w^as  much  smaller. 
Now,  however,  the  rapid  growth  of  population  in  Upper  Canada 
had  given  it  the  numerical  superiority,  and  this  English  majority 
began  to  agitate  for  the  apportionment  of  representation  according 
to  population,  exhibiting  a  spirit  of  intense  hostility  to  the  lan- 
guage, religion,  and  institutions  of  the  French  province.  This 
attack  on  their  nationality  was  bitterly  resented  by  the  French, 
and  as  the  controversy  waxed  hotter  parties  were  so  evenly  bal- 
anced in  the  legislature  that  stable  government  became  impossible. 
One  short-lived  ministry  followed  another  in  rapid  succession,  and 
general  elections  were  frequently  resorted  to  without  permanent 
result.  At  last  a  compromise  was  effected  and  a  ministry  was 
formed  containing  representatives  of  both  parties  pledged  to  bring 
in  a  measure  at  the  next  session  for  introducing  the  federal  princi- 
ple  into  Canada,  with  provisions  permitting  the  maritime  prov- 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        165 

1864-1866 

inces  and  the  Northwest  Territories  to  enter  the  contemplated 
union.  This  coahtion  ministry,  hearing-  of  the  Charlottetown  con- 
ference of  the  maritime  provinces,  immediately  sent  delegates  to 
it.  The  conference,  thus  enlarged,  decided  that  the  question  of  the 
union  of  all  the  provinces  should  be  referred  to  a  convention  to  be 
held  at  Quebec  in  October,  1864. 

The  convention  met  at  the  appointed  time  and  place.  There 
were  in  attendance  twelve  delegates  from  the  two  Canadas,  five 
from  Nova  Scotia,  seven  from  New  Brunswick,  seven  from  Prince 
Edward  Island  and  two  from  Newfoundland.  They  represented 
the  highest  level  of  political  ability  and  experience  in  their  re- 
spective provinces  and  included  many  men  of  distinction,  among 
them  the  Conservatives  John  A.  Macdonald  of  Upper  Canada 
and  Charles  Tupper  of  Nova  Scotia :  the  Liberals  George  Brow^n 
of  Upper  Canada,  Adams  G.  Archibald  of  Nova  Scotia,  Samuel 
Leonard  Tilley  of  New  Brunswick,  and  George  Coles  of  Prince 
Edward  Island.  The  Erench  population  of  Lower  Canada  found 
able  representatives  in  Titienne  Paschal  Tache,  chairman  of  the 
convention,  and  George  litienne  Cartier.  The  convention  sat  for 
eighteen  days  in  the  parliament  house  of  Quebec,  behind  closed 
doors.  The  results  of  the  deliberations  were  embodied  in  seventy- 
two  resolutions  recommending  the  adoption  of  a  federal  govern- 
ment charged  with  matters  of  common  interest  for  the  whole  coun- 
try, with  separate  local  governments  in  Upper  and  Lower  Canada, 
TiUtl  in  each  of  the  other  provinces,  charged  with  the  control  of 
local  matters.  The  model  of  the  British  Constitution  was  to  be 
followed  scj  far  as  practicable,  the  executive  power  vested  in  the 
sovereign  of  tlie  United  Kingdom,  and  to  be  exercised  according 
to  the  well-understood  principles  of  the  British  Constitution  (that 
is  through  a  ministry  responsible  to  the  legislature)  by  the  sov- 
ereign personally  or  by  the  rei)resentative  of  the  sovereign  duly 
authorized.  The  respective  powers  of  the  federal  and  provincial 
governments  were  delined  and  the  residuum  of  power  was  given  to 
the  federation.  I'his  departure  from  American  precedent  was 
probably  due  to  the  terrible  Ci\il  War  then  raging  in  the  United 
States  in  behalf  of  St;ile  rights,  it  is  small  matter  for  wonder  that 
the  Canadians  should  want  that  question  rightly  settled  from  the 
first.  ^Moreover,  the  ])r(niuccs  had  all  been  accustomed  to  the 
supremacy  of  the  cciural  imperial  power,  whereas  the  States  in 
1787  had  recently  ilirown  oiY  that  pcnver  by  successful  revolution, 


166  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1864-1866 

and  jealously  guarded  the  local  independence  thus  gained.  On  this 
point  there  seems  to  have  been  general  agreement.  As  to  other 
matters  there  were  differences.  George  Brown,  the  leader  of  the 
extreme  Liberal  and  English  party  in  Upper  Canada,  whose  de- 
mands for  representation  according  to  population  had  brought  on 
the  crisis  in  the  Canadas  and  led  to  the  movement  for  federation, 
now  advocated  an  executive  for  the  provinces  on  the  model  of  the 
State  governors  in  the  United  States,  with  an  effective  veto  over 
legislation  and  the  power  to  dismiss  any  of  the  chief  executive 
officers  of  the  province  when  the  assembly  was  not  sitting.  These 
governors,  however,  he  would  have  appointed  by  the  federal  gov- 
ernment. He  also  wished  to  have  the  legislatures  elected  at  fixed 
intervals,  and  not  subject  to  dissolution  in  the  meantime.  In  these 
matters  he  was  overruled. 

American  precedent  was  further  disregarded  in  regulating 
the  financial  relation  of  the  several  provinces  with  the  general  gov- 
ernment. In  the  United  States  the  revenue  of  the  States  is  inde- 
pendent of  that  of  the  nation,  the  former  coming  chiefly  from 
indirect  taxes  and  the  latter  from  direct.  But  direct  taxes  were 
unknown  in  the  maritime  provinces,  where  municipal  self-govern- 
ment did  not  exist  and  local  needs  were  met  by  grants  from  the 
legislature.  Upper  Canada  enjoyed  municipal  self-government 
supported  by  direct  taxation,  and  would  have  preferred  to  have 
the  provincial  governments  so  supported ;  but  to  secure  the  adhe- 
sion of  the  maritime  provinces,  it  was  necessary  for  the  general 
government  to  grant  annual  subsidies  to  the  provincial  govern- 
ments out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  taxation  of  imports  and  other 
federal  revenues.  As  in  the  federal  convention  at  Philadelphia  in 
1787  the  small  States  showed  much  jealousy  of  the  larger  ones,  so 
now  the  delegates  from  Prince  Edward  Island  feared  to  enter  the 
proposed  Union  for  similar  reasons.  Indeed  the  reasons  were 
stronger  by  as  much  as  the  new  government  was  to  be  more  cen- 
tralized than  that  of  the  United  States.  The  residuum  of  power 
was  not  only  conferred  on  the  federal  government,  but  the  judges 
of  llic  higlicr  ])rovincial  courts  were  to  be  appointed  by  it  and  their 
salaries  fixed  by  the  federal  parliament.  ^Moreover,  provincial 
legislation  wns  tr)  be  subject  to  federal  control  in  certain  cases  for 
the  protection  of  the  riglits  of  a  Protestant  or  Roman  Catliolic 
minority  in  matters  of  education. 

Ihe  resolutions  of  the  (Quebec  convention  were  now  referred 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        167 

1866-1867 

back  to  the  provincial  legislatures  for  action.  Special  conventions 
were  not  chosen  for  this  purpose  as  had  been  done  in  the  United 
States,  nor  was  the  question  in  any  manner  submitted  to  a  popular 
vote  except  in  New  Brunswick,  where  the  first  election  was  ad- 
verse to  the  Union  and  compelled  the  resignation  of  the  ministry 
who  favored  it.  In  the  same  year,  however,  the  lieutenant  gover- 
nor found  means  to  dismiss  their  successors  and  appeal  again  to 
the  people,  who  now  elected  a  legislature  with  a  safe  majority  for 
the  Union.  In  all  the  maritime  provinces  there  was  strong  oppo- 
sition to  the  Quebec  resolutions,  due  partly  to  dissatisfaction  with 
the  financial  terms,  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  delegates  of  these  prov- 
inces had  been  elected  to  consider  a  confederation  restricted  to 
those  provinces  and  had  not  been  authorized  to  take  up  the  question 
of  a  wider  union.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  federal  party  dared  not 
appeal  to  the  people,  and  were  compelled  to  wait  until  1866  before 
pressing  the  question  in  the  legislature,  which  at  length,  under  the 
strong  influence  of  the  English  Colonial  Office,  approved  the  plan. 
In  Prince  h^dward  Island  and  Newfoundland  the  advocates  of 
the  Union  were  too  weak  to  seriously  urge  the  matter  at  all.  The 
parliament  of  the  two  Canadas  approved  the  Union  by  large  ma- 
jorities of  the  representatives  of  the  English  and  also  of  the  Erench 
province.  This  action  was  taken  early  in  1865,  and  a  delegation 
went  to  England  to  forward  the  project  and  take  steps  for  the 
acquisition  of  the  vast  territories  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 
In  1866  the  Canadian  parliament  framed  separate  constitutions 
for  the  provinces  of  Up]icr  and  Lower  Canada,  to  be  submitted  to 
the  home  government  as  a  part  of  the  federation  scheme.  Dele- 
gates from  tlie  proN-inccs  which  had  accepted  the  plan  went  to 
England,  met  in  Londiin  in  Deceml)er  of  that  year,  and  adopted 
amendments  of  its  financial  provisions  tending  to  conciliate  the 
opposition  in  the  maritime  provinces.  Thus  amended  the  measure 
was  passed  without  ()i)position  by  the  imperial  parliament  on 
]\larch  2Q.  1867,  as  "'  The  British  North  America  Act.  iSC)y."  A 
roval  proclamation  set  the  first  day  of  July  for  putting  the  new 
government  in  force.  The  federal  state  took  tlie  name  Dominion 
of  Canada,  and  the  jjrovinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  were 
henceforward  called  Ontario  ruid  Ouchcc. 

I'he  lirst  elections  for  tlic  Dominion  parh'amcnt  resulted  in 
a  victory  for  the  Conser\\'iti\e  party  under  tlic  leader>hip  of  Sir 
John  Macdonald.  who  Iiad  been  one  of  the  leading  advocates  of 


168  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1878 

union.  In  Nova  Scotia,  however,  the  opponents  of  union  were  suc- 
cessful, and  the  provincial  assembly  addressed  the  British  parlia- 
ment, demanding  the  repeal  of  the  British  North  America  Act. 
This  could  not  be  obtained,  and  further  financial  concessions  to  that 
province,  made  by  the  Dominion  parliament  in  1869,  induced  Mr. 
Howe,  the  leader  of  the  opposition  there,  to  abandon  a  hopeless 
cause  and  join  the  Macdonald  ministry.  The  party  of  repeal  was 
decisively  defeated  in  the  general  election  for  the  Dominion  parlia- 
ment in  1872,  and  shortly  thereafter  disappeared  from  the  politics 
of  the  province.  In  the  meantime  disunion  sentiment  appeared  in 
the  west.  British  Columbia  had  been  admitted  to  the  Union  in 
1 87 1  upon  the  promise  of  the  Dominion  Government  to  speedily 
build  a  railway  to  the  Pacific.  This  promise  was  not  fulfilled. 
There  were  many  physical  obstacles  to  be  overcome,  business  de- 
pression had  checked  enterprise,  and  a  strong  faction  of  the  Liberal 
party  was  opposed  to  the  undertaking.  The  people  of  the  western 
province  were  angered  by  the  delay,  and  the  legislature  demanded 
the  immediate  completion  of  the  road  or  the  separation  of  the  prov- 
ince from  the  Dominion.  With  the  return  of  the  Conservatives  to 
power  in  1878  the  work  was  vigorously  pushed  to  a  conclusion  and 
the  separatist  sentiment  in  British  Columbia  disappeared. 

The  admission  of  British  Columbia  was  a  step  in  a  general 
expansion  movement  for  the  absorption  of  all  the  British  posses- 
sions north  of  the  United  States.  The  adhesion  of  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island  was  secured  in  1873  by  liberal  financial  concessions 
for  the  support  of  the  provincial  government  and  the  extinguishment 
of  the  title  of  those  proprietors  to  whom  the  British  Government 
had  wastefully  granted  the  greater  part  of  the  public  lands  in 
the  island.  Of  the  maritime  provinces,  Newfoundland  alone  re- 
mained aloof. 

It  was  in  the  west,  however,  that  the  great  field  for  expansion 
was  to  be  sought,  and  its  success  was  assured  there  before  the 
separatism  of  Prince  Edward  Island  was  overcome.  The  early 
history  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Companv  has  already  been  narrated. 
After  the  conquest  of  Canada  in  1763,  the  Northwest  Company, 
with  hcadcjuartcrs  at  ^Montreal,  entered  into  competition  for  the  fur 
trade,  establisliing  posts  and  sending  its  agents  to  explore  the  great 
region  between  Hudson  I'ay  ami  llic  Pacific  and  Arctic  Oceans. 
As  an  incident  of  this  rivalry  Lord  Selkirk  received  a  grant  from 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  the  Red  River  countiy,  and  estab- 


SIR     CF.OKi.K     >l\llxiN      1- .- r  \i;i  l>ll  ]  \i,      111-     V\K-r     II    :    \i;:. 
AMi     H  AM-    likl-.l.li-     \I-:\K    \  WtnlAKK     l\      1 S^^ : 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        169 

1816-1849 

lished  a  colony  of  Scotch  people  there.  In  spite  of  a  massacre 
perpetrated  in  i8r6  by  the  half-breeds  in  the  service  of  the  North- 
west Company,  the  colony  lived  on.  In  1821  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  boug-ht  in  the  rights  of  their  rivals  and  secured  an  act 
of  parliament  granting  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  region  for 
twenty-one  years,  afterward  renewed  for  a  like  period.  The  gen- 
eral policy  of  the  company  was  to  discourage  settlement  in  order 
to  preserve  its  exclusive  rights  and  maintain  the  value  of  the  trade 
in  furs.  It  bought  from  Lord  Selkirk's  heirs  their  interest  in  the 
Red  River  country  and  established  a  simple  form  of  government 
over  the  Scotch  settlers  and  French  half-breeds.  Meanwhile  agi- 
tation arose  in  Canada  for  the  opening  up  of  the  country,  and  no 
further  extension  of  the  company's  monopoly  could  be  secured. 
In  1868  the  company  agreed  to  sell  to  Canada  all  its  territorial 
claims  for  300,000/.,  reserving  certain  lands  for  its  own  use. 
The  Dominion  in  1869  prepared  to  take  possession  and  sent  agents 
to  the  Red  River  country  to  sui'vey  lands  and  prepare  to  take  over 
the  government.  Thereupon  the  French  half-breeds  rebelled  un- 
der the  leadership  of  Louis  Riel.  The  Dominion  Government 
suppressed  the  revolt  by  military  force,  but  quieted  the  discontent 
of  the  Red  River  settlers  by  creating  the  new  province  of  Mani- 
toba in  1870.  and  admitting  it  to  the  Union.  The  government  of 
the  rest  of  the  Iludson  IJay  territory  was  for  a  time  carried  on 
l)v  the  lieutenant  govern(n'  of  Manitoba  and  a  small  council  created 
for  that  ])urpose.  A  few  years  later  the  Northwest  Territories 
were  separately  organized  under  their  own  lieutenant  governor 
and  council  appointed  by  the  central  government,  but  the  country 
on  the  western  and  southern  shores  of  Hudson  Bay  remained 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  lieutenant  governor  of  Manitoba  and 
was  named  Keewatin.  Still  later  the  Northwest  was  given  repre- 
sentatives in  parliament  and  a  system  of  local  government  was 
established  there,  so  that  the  region  occupies  a  constitutional  posi- 
tion analogous  to  that  of  the  organized  territories  of  the  United 
States.  The  process  of  expansion  was  completed  by  a  British  order 
in  council  annexing  to  the  Domiiiion  all  British  North  American 
territories  except  Xewfoundland.  Doubtless  that  island  will  at 
some  time  follow  the  cxam])le  (»f  Prince  Fdward  Island  and 
complete  the  Canadian  territory  in  the  east.  The  annexation  of 
British  Columlua  has  already  been  described.  Originallv  within 
the  domain  of  the  Iludson  Bay  Company,  it  had  been  known  as 


170  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1849-1905 

New  Caledonia.  Vancouver  Island  was  first  separately  organized 
as  a  Crown  colony  in  1849  and  was  granted  a  representative  as- 
sembly in  1856.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  New  Caledonia  in  1858 
brought  in  many  settlers  and  the  country  was  made  a  Crown  col- 
ony under  the  name  of  British  Columbia.  In  1866  Vancouver 
Island  was  absorbed  by  the  new  colon}'-.  Until  its  admission  as  a 
province  of  the  Dominion,  British  Columbia  was  governed  by  a 
lieutenant  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown  and  a  legislature  partly 
appointed  and  partl}^  elected  by  the  people.  It  was  thereafter  or- 
ganized like  the  other  provinces  with  a  responsible  ministry  and  an 
assembly  elected  b}'  the  people.  The  Dominion  undertook  to  pay 
subsidies  for  provincial  expenses  and  to  build  a  railway  from  the 
Lakes  to  the  Pacific  coast  within  ten  years.  Thus  Canada  had 
added  three  provinces,  Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  to  the  four  original  members  of  the  union,  and  had 
acquired  a  vast  and  rich  region  from  which  new  provinces  would 
in  time  be  formed.  Two  new  provinces,  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan, 
were  constituted  out  of  the  Northwest  Territories,  and  admitted 
to  the  Union  in  1905.  The  recent  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
portion  of  the  Northwest  bordering  on  Alaska  led  to  the  govern- 
mental organization  of  that  region  under  the  name  of  Yukon. 
Throughout  the  Northwest  law  is  enforced  and  order  maintained 
by  the  admirably  managed  mounted  police.  The  Indian  natives 
have  been  treated  with  humanity  by  the  Dominion  Government, 
shielded  from  bad  influences,  and  taught  the  simpler  arts  of  civilized 
life.  Circumstances  have  protected  them  from  the  rush  of  white 
settlers  which  has  borne  so  heavily  on  their  kinsmen  in  the  United 
States  from  the  beginning. 

'I'he  constitutional  history  of  the  Dominion  is  interesting  to 
Americans  chiclly  because  of  the  contrasts  it  presents  to  federal 
government  as  we  understand  and  practice  it.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  an  axiom  of  constitutional  practice  that  the  federal  and 
State  gcjvernments  are  entirely  separate  and  distinct.  In  Canada 
the  provinces  depend  on  the  Dominion  treasury  for  revenue,  as 
has  been  stated.  ]">)r  a  time  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  same 
man  to  sit  in  tlic  pnn'incial  and  federal  legislatures  at  the  same 
time,  a  jjraclicc  at  length  forbidden  by  provincial  legislation.  In- 
stead of  a  dual  system  of  courts,  the  i)rovincial  judges  are  ap- 
pointed by  tlie  Duminion  Government,  and  several  years  elapsed 
before  a  sui)rcme  court  was  established  to  hear  appeals  from  the 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        171 

1840-1878 

provincial  courts.  Appeals  may  still  be  made  to  the  privy  council 
in  England,  and  are  in  practice  heard  by  the  highest  English 
judges  sitting  as  the  judicial  committee  of  tlie  privy  council.  An- 
other sharp  contrast  to  American  methods  is  seen  in  the  constitu- 
tion and  powers  of  the  Senate.  Senators  are  appointed  by  the 
Crown  for  life,  and  must  possess  a  property  qualification.  But  the 
influence  of  the  Senate  is  very  small.  As  in  England,  the  power 
resides  in  the  House  of  Commons.  This  is  almost  inevitable  in  a 
system  of  government  by  a  ministry  responsible  to  the  legislature. 
Ministers  could  not  well  be  responsible  to  two  houses,  which  might 
often  be  controlled  by  opposing  parties. 

The  working  of  the  parliamentary  system  as  applied  to  the 
relation  of  the  Dominion  with  the  imperial  government  on  the  one 
hand,  and  with  the  provincial  governments  on  the  other,  are  most 
interesting.  The  governor  general  is  the  important  link  between 
colony  and  empire.  i\ppointed  by  the  English  ministry,  he  stands 
outside  of  the  struggles  of  coU)nial  party  politics  as  the  king  stands 
outside  of  English  party  politics.  He  wields  the  royal  powers 
through  ministers  responsible  to  the  Dominion  parliament.  In 
practice  the  chief  executive  is  the  premier  representing  the  major- 
ity party  in  the  parliament.  The  lieutenant  governors  of  the 
provinces  are  appointed  in  form  by  the  governor  general,  but  in 
practice  by  the  Dominion  ministry,  and  their  position  with  respect 
to  the  provincial  legislatures  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  governor 
general.  I'hus.  in  fad.  each  province  is  goxerned  by  an  executive 
representing  the  majority  parly  in  the  i)ro\  incial  assembly.  Ihis 
system  is  \-cry  elastic.  In  this  iield  we  must  seek  the  sources  of 
constitutional  law  of  the  Dominion  in  the  instructions  of  the  Brit- 
ish Ciilonial  (Jiiice  to  the  governor  general,  and  in  the  practice 
that  has  grown  up  in  the  actual  working  of  the  system.  Thus 
the  pardoning  power  was  exerci>etl  by  the  governor  general  in 
fa\"or  of  Kiel  and  others  of  the  Xortliwest  rebels  without  the 
action  or  recommendation  ui  the  ministry  then  in  power.  This 
act  was  sc\-erely  criticised  in  Canada,  and  led  in  1875  to  a  modi- 
iicalion  of  the  cijninii^.>ion  and  instructions  of  the  governcjr  general 
to  prevent  its  repetition.  In  tlie  relations  oi  the  federal  and  pro- 
vincial e.\ecuti\es  some  interesting  (juestions  have  arisen.  In  J 878 
the  Liberal  lieittenant  governor  of  (Jnebec  di>missed  the  Conserva- 
tive ministry  of  the  province  and  api)ointed  Liberals  in  their  stead, 
who  appealed  to  the  country.     The  result  of  the  election  was  a  tie. 


172  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1891-1896 

The  Conservative  Dominion  ministry  now  advised  the  dismissal  of 
the  heutenant  governor  of  Quebec.  The  governor  general  refused 
until  he  had  referred  the  matter  for  instructions  to  the  colonial 
secretary  in  England,  who  directed  him  to  comply  with  the  advice 
of  the  Dominion  ministry.  In  1891  the  lieutenant  governor  of 
Quebec  dismissed  his  ministers  for  corruption,  and  on  an  appeal 
to  the  country  the  new  provincial  ministry  was  sustained.  There 
was  no  appeal  to  or  action  by  the  Dominion  Government.  Recently 
the  lieutenant  governor  of  British  Columbia  was  removed  from 
office  by  the  Dominion  Government  for  the  arbitrary  dismissal  of 
the  provincial  ministers. 

The  reality  of  the  powers  of  the  governor  general  in  prevent- 
ing abuses  of  power  for  party  purposes  was  illustrated  by  the  re- 
fusal of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  to  make  certain  senatorial  and 
judicial  appointments,  advised  by  the  Conservative  ministry  of 
Sir  Charles  Tupper  after  it  had  been  defeated  in  the  general  elec- 
tions of  1896.  This  refusal  was  sustained  by  the  Dominion  par- 
liament and  the  British  Colonial  Office. 

In  its  spirit  the  Canadian  constitution  is  democratic.  The 
property  qualification  for  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  was 
abolished  by  the  Liberals  after  their  victory  in  the  election  of  1873. 
Members  of  the  lower  house  are  elected  by  ballot  on  the  same  day 
throughout  the  Dominion.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  controlled  by 
the  laws  of  each  province.  The  Conservatives  enacted  a  general 
franchise  law  in  1885  requiring-  a  small  property  qualification  for 
voters,  but  it  was  repealed  and  the  old  system  reestablished  soon 
after  the  Liberal  victory  in  1896. 

The  most  serious  problems  of  the  Dominion  are  caused  by 
the  religious  and  racial  antagonism  of  the  English  and  French 
population.  We  have  seen  how  this  led  to  the  separation  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada  in  1791  to  free  the  small  English  population 
in  the  western  province  from  French  domination;  how  it  brought 
on  the  rebellion  under  Papineau  in  the  French  province;  how  the 
two  provinces  were  combined  in  a  legislative  union  in  1840,  and 
the  Eiiglisli  province,  though  inferior  in  population,  was  given 
equal  representatitjn  with  the  French  in  the  hope  of  Anglicizing 
the  latter;  Ikav,  when  the  growth  of  Upper  Canada  outstripped  that 
of  the  French  province,  representation  according  to  population  was 
demanded  by  L])per  Canada,  the  constitution  established  in 
1840  broke  dcnvn  in  consccjuence ;  and  finally  how  federation  was 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        173 

1840-1896 

adopted  as  a  remedy,  leaving  the  French  of  Quebec  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  their  own  province  in  their  own  way.  The  French  have 
not  been  .VngHcizcd,  but  cHng  tenaciously  to  their  own  language, 
laws,  and  religion,  and  in  their  political  action  have  been  to  a  great 
degree  subject  to  the  influence  of  their  priests.  The  Dominion 
Government  was  given  some  measure  of  control  over  the  provincial 
governments  to  protect  the  rights  of  religious  minorities.  In  this 
and  other  ways  it  was  inevitable  that  the  racial  and  religious 
antagonism  should  affect  Dominion  politics.  Thus  in  1888  an 
attempt  was  unsuccessfully  made  in  the  Dominion  parliament  to 
disallow  the  action  of  the  Quebec  Government  in  referring  to  the 
Pope  the  distribution  of  certain  funds  among  the  ecclesiastical 
institutions  of  the  province,  in  compensation  for  ecclesiastical  estates 
confiscated  by  the  government.  The  attempt  was  considered  an 
unwise  interference  with  the  self-government  of  the  province,  and 
was  defeated.  In  1885  a  second  rebellion  of  the  French  half-breeds 
of  the  Northwest  under  Riel  was  suppressed  by  military  force.  Riel 
was  tried  and  condemned  to  death.  There  was  much  sympathy  for 
him  among  the  French  of  Quebec,  who  made  strenuous  efforts  to 
secure  his  pardon.  His  sentence  w'as  executed  nevertheless,  but 
the  agitation  caused  an  overturn  of  parties  in  Quebec.  In  187 1  the 
Roman  Catholics  of  Xew  Brunswick  unsuccessfully  invoked  the 
powers  of  the  Dominion  Government  and  the  courts  to  annul  cer- 
tain school  legislation  unfavorable  to  them.  Again  in  1890  and 
the  following  years  tlie  school  question  in  Manitoba  was  the  chief 
political  issue  througliout  the  Dominion.  Manitoba  established  a 
non-sectarian  school  system  in  1890.  The  Roman  Catholic  minor- 
ity appealed  in  vain  to  the  courts  and  then  to  the  governor  in 
council.  The  Conservative  ministry  introduced  in  the  Dominion 
parliament  a  bill  to  afford  them  relief,  which  was  bitterly  opposed 
on  racial  rather  than  party  lines,  and  had  to  be  abandoned  before 
the  close  of  the  session.  The  general  election  of  1896  followed, 
resulting  in  a  victory  for  the  Liberals  under  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier, 
who  carried  (Juchcc  \)y  a  large  majority  against  the  influence  of 
the  priests.  He  compromised  the  question  by  permitting  religious 
instruction  after  scIkh)!  hours  and  rc(|uiring  the  teaching  of  h^rcnch 
in  any  school  v.1km-c  ten  pupils  speak  the  hVench  language.  On 
the  whole  the  fcdci-al  system  seems  t(j  have  met  tlie  racial  and 
religious  difticnity  fairly  ucll. 

In  the  relations  of  Canada  with  the  rest  of  the  empire  ihc 


174  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1878-1396 

question  of  the  tariff  has  been  prominent.  The  United  States,  after 
the  Civil  War.  had  terminated  the  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada. 
In  1878,  after  a  period  of  economic  depression,  the  Conservative 
party  took  up  the  pohcy  of  protectionism  and  carried  the  general 
election  on  it.  A  protective  tariff  was  enacted  by  the  Conservatives 
shortlv  after  their  return  to  power.  The  Liberal  party  opposed 
this  policy,  and  desired  reciprocity  with  the  United  States.  On 
their  return  to  power,  however,  in  1896,  they  abandoned  these 
issues  and  took  up  the  policy  of  preferential  trade  in  favor  of  Eng-- 
land.  That  is,  that  English  goods  be  admitted  under  less  duties 
than  are  charged  upon  goods  of  like  kind  from  other  countries. 
This  was  the  essential  feature  of  the  programme  set  forth  by 
a  colonial  conference  representing  the  American,  South  African, 
and  Australian  self-governing  colonies.  No  concession  has  yet 
been  granted  by  England  to  the  colonies,  and  the  question  is  a 
burning  one  in  England  now.  The  attachment  of  Canadians  to  the 
empire  is  attested  by  the  service  of  Canadian  volunteers  in  South 
Africa  during  the  recent  Boer  \\^ar. 

Parliamentary  government  in  Canada,  as  in  England,  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  keen  rivalry  of  two  great  parties.  The  Conserva- 
tives are  in  spirit  not  unlike  the  English  party  of  the  same  name. 
They  organized  the  government  under  the  British  North  America 
Act,  1867,  and  carried  it  on  until  1873,  and  again  after  a  short 
interval  from  1878  until  1896.  Until  1891  their  leader  was  Sir 
John  ^lacdonald.  They  have  emphasized  the  advantages  of  the 
English  connection  and  adopted  a  critical  attitude  toward  democ- 
racy. Their  policy  has  been  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  the  Do- 
minion over  all  British  North  America,  and  to  bind  all  its  parts 
togetlicr  by  railways  and  canals  constructed  wholly  or  in  part  at 
government  expense.  Their  adoption  of  protectionism  falls  in 
naturally  with  this  national  policv.  The  Liberal  party  has  favored 
democracy,  (jppo^cd  tlic  establishment  of  the  protective  policy,  ad- 
vocated reciprocity  and  cordial  friendship  with  the  United  States, 
and  criticised  the  heavy  governmental  expenditures  on  such  enter- 
prises as  the  Canadian  I'acific  Railway. 

The  interned  development  of  the  Dominion  has  been  rapid 
and  peaceful  save  fi-r  llic  two  rebellions  of  the  Erench  half-breeds 
of  the  Xort]i\\cst  and  some  al)or!i\'e  raids  of  Irish  "  Fcni;ins  "" 
from  the  L'nitcd  States  in  the  years  following  the  American  Civil 
AVar.     The  wonderful  natural  svstem  of  water  communication  bv 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        175 

1867-1910 

the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes  has  been  vastly  improved 
by  canals,  and  all  parts  of  the  country  have  been  connected  by  rail- 
w^ays.  Not  content  with  the  completion  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
line,  the  Canadians  are  projecting  two  more  transcontinental  rail- 
ways farther  north.  The  Dominion  is  rich  in  natural  resources, 
and  is  vigorously  developing  them.  The  recent  discovery  of  gold 
in  the  Yukon  country  was  a  great  stimulus  to  that  Arctic  region, 
as  it  had  before  been  in  British  Columbia.  In  the  eastern  prov- 
inces coal  and  iron  mining  are  important  industries  in  addition  to 
the  fisheries  and  lumbering.  Xo  portion  of  the  country  has  a  more 
solid  basis  of  future  prosperity  and  greatness  than  the  vast  and 
fertile  wheat  country  (^f  the  Northwest.  A  true  national  spirit  is 
rising  in  Canada  and  sometimes  shows  itself  in  an  exaggerated 
sensitiveness  to  foreign  criticism,  such  as  was  exhibited  in  the 
United  States  at  a  similar  stage  of  development.  Canadians  have 
recently  suffered  a  keen  disappointment  in  the  decision  affirming 
the  right  of  th.e  L^nited  States  to  the  exclusive  possession  of  the 
Pacific  coast  in  the  ntn-thwest.  thus  cutting  off  northern  British 
Columbia  and  the  N^ikon  country  from  access  to  the  sea  except 
through  foreign  territory. 

An  important  item  in  the  internal  policy  of  the  Dominion  has 
been  the  treatment  of  the  public  lands.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  and  first  rpiarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  vast  grants 
were  recklessly  made  for  little  or  no  consideration,  to  absentee  pro- 
])riett)rs,  in  whose  hands  the  l;nul  remained  unimproved  and  in- 
accessible to  settlement.  By  the  accpiisition  ui  the  Xorthwest,  tiie 
opening  of  the  clergy  reserves,  ;md  i)urchasL'  from  the  great  pro- 
prietors in  the  olTier  [provinces  these  errors  were  amended  and  a 
policy  analogous  to  tliat  of  llic  United  States  adopted,  under  which 
settlement  has  gone'  rapid!}'  forward. 

Tlie  i)rime  ocport  of  Canada  has  always  been  its  fine  yellow 
pine  timl)cr  or  luni!)cr  raid  tlio  ni;inufactnred  ])roducts  of  lumber, 
h^ormerl}'  the  \\lioie  country  \v:;s  c«i\-crod  with  it.  The  yellow  pine 
runs  ijo  feet  without  ]<not  or  branch,  and  has  a  butt  seven  feet  in 
diameter,  l^ach  of  these  trees  is  worth,  in  X'ew  York.  SS(30,  and 
in  I'aisdand,  j.cn!,  Tiie  Iuin!)erers  l)egin  t'leir  work  in  autumn, 
and  fell  as  man}-  trees  as  tliey  can,  during  the  winter,  haul  down  to 
the  rivers,  whence  the\'  are  carried  by  the  spring  floods  down  to 
the  kd^cs.  1  iere  they  are  rafteih  aiul  lloated  down  o\-er  tlie  rapid- 
to  Montreal  and  (Juebec.  where  the}-  are  sawn  up  and  distributed 


176  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

for  use  or  export.  British  Columbia  sends  large  quantities  of  this 
valuable  product  all  over  the  Pacific  coast.  Besides  lumber,  Can- 
ada exports  every  year  increasing  quantities  of  wheat,  flour,  beef, 
pork,  and  cheese.  Some  of  the  factories  of  Ontario  make  half  a 
million  pounds  of  cheese  a  year,  Canada  has  also  inexhaustible 
supplies  of  mineral  oil.  Its  trade  has  greatly  increased  since  the 
construction  of  the  Grand  Trunk  and  other  railways.  The  antici- 
pation of  a  collision  with  the  United  States  in  1862  led  to  the  Ca- 
nadian railways  being  connected  with  the  port  of  Halifax,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  which  is  accessible  to  ships  all  the  year  round,  so  that  Can- 
ada might  be  independent  of  the  United  States  for  its  communica- 
tion with  Europe,  Thus  was  constructed  the  great  Intercolonial 
Railway.  About  the  same  time  the  manufactures  of  Canada  be- 
gan to  rise  to  some  importance.  Manufactures  always  spring  up 
when  the  population  has  reached  a  certain  degree  of  density. 
Thousands  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Canada  were  for  many 
years  unable  to  find  employment  at  home  and  many  settled  in  the 
United  States.  There  were  one  million  persons  of  French  Cana- 
dian birth  or  parentage  in  the  United  States  in  1900.^  Canada 
now  has  abundance  of  capital ;  it  commands  water-power,  cheap 
labor,  and  easy  communication  with  the  rest  of  the  world;  it  is 
rich  in  all  kinds  of  metals,  while  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick have  abundance  of  coal,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  the  manu- 
factures of  Lower  Canada  will  steadily  increase  with  the  increase 
of  population.  The  natural  resources  of  British  Columbia  seem  to 
be  unlimited.  It  produces  the  finest  timber  in  the  whole  world, 
it  abounds  in  coal,  iron,  and  copper;  and  its  fisheries  are  capable  of 
supplying  food  to  the  wliole  continent.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  from  ^Montreal  to  Vancouver,  2906  miles,  unites  this 
flourishing  province  with  the  rest  of  the  Dominion,  and  subsidized 
steamers  secure  rapid  and  regular  communication  with  Japan, 
China,  and  Australia. 

The  capital  of  the  Dominion  is  now  the  city  of  Ottawa,  on 
tlie  river  of  the  same  name.  Here  it  is  that  representatives  from  all 
parts  of  the  Dominion,  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic,  deliberate. 
The  Canada  of  a  hundred  years  ago  is  thus  completely  eclipsed  by 
the  larger  growths  which  have  been  attracted  to  it.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent system  of  local  government.  Its  relationship  to  England 
has  shrunk  to  very  slight  prop(jrtions.  Canada  now  has  a  supreme 
C^airt  of  Appc:;K  \,l;ic!;  was  one  of  the  i^r  t  clringos  ciTccted  by  the 
1  "Twclftli    Census   of  the  U.  S.,"  Vol.  1.  pp.  732,  812. 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND        177 

1713-1833 

liberal  ministry  of  Mr.  Mackenzie,  who  came  into  office  in  1874 
though  the  right  of  appeal  from  the  law  courts  of  Canada  to  the 
English  Privy  Council  still  exists.  England  has  a  nominal  veto  on 
the  laws  made  by  the  Canadians,  but  it  is  never  exercised,  and  the 
imperial  government  has  merely  the  honorary  selection  of  the 
Canadian  governor  general.  The  frame  of  society  in  Canada,  as  in 
Australia,  is  of  the  American  rather  than  the  European  type ;  and 
many  people  have  supposed  that  Canada  will  sooner  or  later  join 
her  fortunes  with  those  of  the  United  States.  But  Canada  takes 
pride  in  the  empire  and  in  the  strength  which  her  vigorous  popula- 
tion, now  exceeding  five  millions,  adds  to  the  imperial  structure. 
Her  present  outlook  is  toward  imperial  federation  rather  than 
separation. 

Newfoundland  has  been  claimed  by  the  English  ever  since  its 
discovery,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VH. ;  but  the  English  people  who 
settled  there  were  never  able,  as  we  have  already  seen,  to  keep  out 
the  French  fishermen,  and  until  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713, 
there  were  perpetual  feuds  between  them.  By  this  treaty  the  island 
was  finally  secured  to  the  English,  and  it  has  ever  since  remained 
a  Crown  colony.  Newfoundland  has  not  been  so  fortunate  as  the 
maritime  provinces.  Unlike  these,  it  had,  until  1832,  no  constitu- 
tion gratited  to  it;  the  rude  and  lawless  people  who  inhabited  it, 
mostly  Irish,  were  not  indeed  fit  to  be  entrusted  with  one.  Charles 
I.  had  placed  Newfoundland  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  mayor 
of  Southampton ;  but  the  government  of  the  island  was  long  prac- 
tically in  the  hands  of  the  skippers  of  English  vessels,  each  of 
whom  was  invested,  by  an  act  of  William  HI.,  with  the  authority 
of  a  vice  admiral  on  his  own  fishing  station.  When  the  fishing 
vessels  went  for  the  winter  there  were  no  means  of  keeping  order, 
and  crime  and  disturbances  were  the  natural  consequences.  In  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  howc\er,  the  island  came  to  be 
regarded  as  something  more  than  a  mere  fisliing  ground;  per- 
manent settlers  went  out  in  great  numbers,  and  the  Board  of 
Trade  recognized  it  as  a  colony,  though  they  still  looked  upon  it 
as  an  isolated  estate  of  the  hjiglisli  nation,  to  be  farmed  for  its 
benefit.  But  as  population  increased  the  fisheries  fell  more  and 
more  into  the  hands  of  the  resident  people;  there  was  little  room 
left  for  European  fishermen ;  regular  grants  of  land  were  made ; 
courts  of  law  were  established  in  1826;  on  New  Year's  Day, 
1833,  the  house  of  assembly  met  for  the  first  time.     Lastly,  the 


178  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1832-1910 

government  was  made  responsible  to  the  assembly  in  1852.  The 
rich  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  still  make  its  chief  value;  but  it 
has  great  pine  forests,  and  of  late  years  attention  has  been  drawn 
to  its  mines  of  lead,  iron,  and  copper.  Its  geographical  position 
connects  it  closely  with  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  which  it  will  no 
doubt  join  in  the  course  of  time,  though  it  has  thus  far  refused 
to  do  so. 

To  secure  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  island  the 
government  entered  into  a  contract  with  R.  G.  Reid,  a  man  of 
large  wealth,  to  build  the  road  and  operate  it  at  his  own  expense 
for  fifty  years,  receiving  land  grants  of  7500  acres  per  mile  of 
road.  Thereafter  by  a  cash  payment  of  $1,000,000  he  purchased 
the  reversionary  right  of  the  colony  to  the  possession  of  the  road 
at  the  end  of  the  fifty  years,  together  v.'ith  the  right  to  purchase  the 
government  telegraph  lines  and  drydock  at  St.  John's  for  $500,000. 
He  also  received  a  monopoly  for  thirty  years  of  the  coast  mail 
steam  service  with  an  annual  subsidy  of  $150,000,  agreeing  to 
maintain  a  service  of  eight  well-equipped  steamers.  The  con- 
tract was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  islanders,  and  the  ministry  re- 
sponsible for  it,  led  by  Sir  James  Winter,  was  forced  to  resign  in 
1900.  In  the  meantime  the  British  colonial  secretary  had  been 
appealed  to  and  declined  to  interfere,  though  he  strongly  con- 
demned the  contract.  The  new  (Liberal)  ministry  of  Robert 
IJond  refused  to  sanction  the  transfer  of  Reid's  rights  to  a 
company  without  large  modifications  of  the  contract,  and  on  this 
issue  carried  the  election  of  1900  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
In  1 90 1  a  settlement  of  the  controversy  was  agreed  upon.  Trans- 
fer to  a  company  was  permitted,  the  fifty  years'  lease  of  the  rail- 
way was  confirmed,  the  telegraphs  and  3,000,000  acres  of  land, 
witli  the  reversionary  rights  in  the  raihvay,  were  restored  to  the 
province. 

The  l)iiilfling  of  the  railway  brought  to  life  the  aggravating 
concessions  made  to  ]-rance  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  At 
that  time  tlie  French  fisliermen  made  great  use  of  the  inshore  fish- 
ery on  the  Newfoundland  coast,  and  the  treaty  granted  them  the 
right  to  land  and  fh-y  fish  on  the  then  uninhabited  northern  and 
western  coasts.  .\cconij)anying  the  treaty  was  a  declaration  by  tlie 
English  Crown  prohi!)iting  British  subjects  from  interfering  with 
tliese  riglits  iyr  erecting  permanent  structures  on  the  French  shore. 
Tiiese  rights  were  now  valueless  to  iM-ance.     Her  fishermen  long 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND         179 

1890-1910 

since  abandoned  the  Newfoundland  coast  fishery  and  frequented 
the  Grand  Banks,  yet  she  refused  to  yield  her  rights  without  full 
compensation  and  enforced  them  by  stationing  a  warship  on  the 
coast.  A  temporary  modus  vivcndi  was  concluded  in  1890  between 
the  British  and  French  Governments.  It  produced  constant  irrita- 
tion in  the  island  and  even  talk  of  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
The  French  held  out  for  colonial  concessions  in  West  Africa  and 
elsewhere  in  exchange  for  their  rights  in  Newfoundland,  and  on 
April  8,  1904,  a  treaty  between  the  two  powers  was  signed  at  Lon- 
don whereby  France  gave  up  her  exclusive  rights  on  the  French 
shore  of  Newfoundland,  retaining  only  the  right  to  fish  for  bait, 
and  England  undertook  to  indemnify  the  owners  and  employees 
of  the  French  establishments  there,  besides  granting  a  readjustment 
of  boundaries  and  other  advantages  in  \Vest  Africa. 

In  1907,  consi(lera])le  friction  was  felt  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  over  the  power  obtained  from  Niagara  Falls, 
and  on  January  5th,  of  that  year,  the  Canadian  government  announced 
its  intention  to  place  an  export  duty  on  the  electricity  ob- 
tained in  this  way,  to  secure  the  rccpiisite  pow'Cr  for  Dominion  in- 
dustries. The  principal  feature  of  internal  government  in  the 
provinces  was  the  enforcement  of  the  strict  Sunday  closing  law. 
In  the  meanwhile  negotiations  with  the  United  States  with  refer- 
ence to  postal  matters  were  continued. 

During  the  early  part  of  1908,  the  Canadian  government 
seriously  considered  the  placing  of  loans  for  western  farmers,  hold- 
ing a  conference  at  Ottawa.  On  Alay  4th,  of  this  same  year,  the 
long  discussed  boundary  line  between  the  Dominion  and  the  United 
States  was  finally  ratified  by  the  latter  country.  The  long-looked 
for  tercentenary  celebration  at  Quebec,  opened  in  July,  1908,  with 
the  distinguished  visitor,  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  attendance.  This 
occasion  brought  back  to  the  Dominion  many  native  sons,  as  well 
as  foreigners,  and  a  numlicr  of  the  latter  made  arrangements  for 
settlement  in  Canada.  On  Octol^icr  2f),  190S,  the  parliamentary 
elections  w^cre  held,  the  result  being  in  favor  of  the  Liberals,  but 
they  suffered  consi(lcral)le  reductifin  in  their  majority. 

In  February.  1909,  ratification  was  made  v/itli  reference  to 
the  Newfoundlanrl  fisheries.  On  October  25th,  of  this  same  year, 
the  Canadian  go^'crnmcnt  took  ati  imj-n^rtant  step  in  making  the 
vessels  of  their  navy,  intcrchang'eal)Ic  with  tho<e  of  Great  Uritain, 
and  in  January,    1910,  announcement  was   made  of  the  proposed 


179a  COLONIES     OF    THE    WORLD 

1890-1910 

building  of  eleven  warships,  involving-  an  expenditure  of  $12,000,- 
000.  On  account  of  the  various  disagreements  regarding  the 
boundaries  of  the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  the  matter  has  been 
referred  to  the  International  Court  of  Arbitration  which  will  meet 
at  the  Hague  on  June  i,  1910.  The  most  important  event  in 
Dominion  affairs  thus  far  in  1910,  is  the  stand  taken  by  Canada 
with  reference  to  the  American  tariff.  After  much  discussion,  the 
Governor-General  met  President  Taft  at  Albany,  and  on  March 
30,  1910,  the  terms  of  the  American  tariff  agreement  were  made 
public,  and  were  signed  by  President  Taft.  The  same  rates  were 
given  to  Newfoundland  as  well.  These  rates  are  the  minimum 
rates,  and  in  exchange  Canada  gives  the  United  States  the  inter- 
mediate rates  on  all  goods  which  come  under  the  miscellaneous 
section  of  its  tariff  law,  and  also  on  twelve  specific  schedules. 


BRITISH  COLONIES  IN  THE  SOUTH 
SEA.    1800-1910 


Chapter   XII 

BRITISH    COLONIES    IN    THE    SOUTH    SEA 
1800-1910 

COLONIAL  history  is  as  full  of  surprises  as  any  other.  Lit- 
tle was  it  supposed  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  that 
the  old  colonial  system  would  utterly  pass  away;  quite 
as  little  was  it  guessed  what  would  arise  in  its  place.  How  in- 
credulously would  the  politicians  of  that  day  have  listened  to  one 
who  should  have  spoken  as  follows :  "  The  New  Britain,  which 
is  slipping  from  your  grasp,  you  can  never  recover;  but  in  other 
and  far  remoter  climes,  on  a  great  island  in  the  far  South  Sea, 
where  as  yet  no  white  man  dwells,  there  shall  be  seen  a  hundred 
years  hence  a  second  New  Britain,  more  populous,  more  pros- 
perous, and  more  profitable  to  the  mother  country,  than  that  which 
you  have  now  lost.  This  second  New  Britain,  moreover,  will  grow 
up  from  the  very  dregs  of  your  population,  which  you  are  obliged 
to  cast  out  from  among  vou."  This  has  really  taken  place;  but 
even  in  the  early  years  of  the  century  which  has  elapsed  anyone 
might  have  been  excused  for  questioning  such  a  prophecy.  After 
the  revolt  of  America,  the  English  people  would  perhaps  not  have 
contemplated  the  idea  of  another  troublesome  set  of  dependencies 
with  any  pleasure,  and  they  would  certainly  not  have  colonized  in 
the  face  of  the  strenuous  efforts  which  would  have  been  made  at 
tliat  time  by  France  to  exclude  England  from  any  shore  that  prom- 
ised well  for  new  colonies.  But  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and  the 
I^mpire  left  the  naval  strength  of  France  completely  exhausted ; 
and  thongli  tlie  French  never  ceased  to  watch  and  follow  the  Eng- 
lisli  explnrcrs,  from  the  time  of  Cook's  voyages  down  to  the  set- 
tlement f)f  Xew  Zealand,  thev  were  never  adventurous  enough  to 
anlici])ate  them.  It  is  to  this  exhaustion  of  France  that  the  steady 
growth  of  the  Australian  colonics  is  in  a  great  measure  due.  This 
growtli.  surprising  as  it  has  been  of  late,  was  at  the  beginning  but 
slow.  For  many  years  it  was  never  supposed  that  Australia  would 
become  anytliing  but  a  place  for  penal  settlements.     We  have  al- 

190 


THE     SOUTH     SEA 


181 


1800   1910 


ready  said  how  Pitt  selected  the  eastern  shores  of  tlie  island,  then 
just  made  known  by  Cook's  survey,  as  a  substitute  for  the  Caro- 
linas,  whither  English  felons  had  hitherto  been  transported,  Eng-- 
land  at  this  time  found  it  necessary  to  banish  from  her  shores  2000 
criminals  a  year,  and  lienceforward  these  criminals  were  sent  to 
Australia.     As  their  terms  of  sentence  expired,   the  convicts  bc- 


"^     "i'^.::'^      ct.^c! 


•XortolH  li 


BRITISH  COLONIES  IN  THE  SOUTH  SEAS 


came  free  men  aii^ain,  and  often  owners  of  l;ind;  and  thus  we  sec 
that  in  a  few  years  there  would  be  a  i^n-uhKiHy  increasing  genera- 
tion of  indci^ndent  colonists.  TIk-c  would  soon  be  joined  by 
other  free  seniors  from  h<»mc,  if  the  olony  happened  to  prosi)cr, 
and  ultimatelv  the  free  elcnicnt  would  be  so  strong  in  the  colony 
that  it  w(nil(l  seek  1(^  gel  rid  of  tlie  \-)cu\\\  clKiracter  altogether.  This 
is  what  has  hap])cned  in  New  South  Wales,  from  which  the  otlier 
Australias  are  offshoots. 

Cook  gave  the  name  ^^i  Xew  South  Wales  to  the  eastern  chores 


182  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

of  New  Holland  from  their  likeness  to  that  hilly  coast  which  is  so 
well  known  to  sailors  who  enter  or  leave  the  port  of  Bristol.  He 
did  not  survey  it  accurately,  for  he  passed  without  examination  the 
inlet  of  Port  Jackson,  which  leads  to  the  finest  harbor  in  the  whole 
world,  and  advised  a  settlement  near  his  own  anchorage  of  Botany 
Bay,  which  had  nothing  to  recommend  it  except  that  profusion  of 
strange  plants  to  which  it  owes  its  name.  To  Botany  Bay, 
accordingly,  a  fleet  of  several  vessels,  containing  850  male  and 
female  convicts,  was  dispatched  under  the  command  of  Captain 
Arthur  Philip,  in  1787.  Philip  quitted  Botany  Bay  as  soon  as  he 
arrived;  and  after  exploring  Port  Jackson  he  decided  to  make  his 
settlement  at  that  place.  The  vast  harbor  to  which  Port  Jackson 
leads  is  divided  into  many  coves.  The  principal  of  these  he  called 
Sydney  cove,  in  honor  of  Viscount  Sydney,  the  colonial  secre- 
tary under  whose  directions  the  expedition  was  sent  out;  and 
on  its  shores  he  began  the  little  convict  settlement  of  Sydney, 
which  after  many  years  was  destined  to  become  the  capital  of 
a  great  colony.  Why  so  many  years  passed  before  this  took 
place  is  explained  by  the  nature  of  the  settlement.  It  mattered 
nothing  to  anyone  how  the  settlement  got  on,  provided  no  one 
out  of  the  shoals  of  convicts  who  were  annually  brought  to  the 
place  actually  died  of  hunger.  The  only  thing  was  to  provide 
the  inhabitants  with  subsistence,  and  proper  land  for  this  pur- 
pose was  to  be  selected  by  the  governor,  and  to  be  cultivated  by 
the  convicts  for  grain.  The  soil  of  the  place  is  poor,  and  it 
was  not  until  1791  that  a  tolerable  site  for  a  farm  was  found 
out  on  the  River  Paramatta.  However,  more  and  more  land 
was  grubbed  of  the  tough  gum  trees  which  covered  the  place, 
and  as  the  convicts  arrived  they  were  distributed  to  work  during 
their  allotted  time  in  cultivating  the  soil,  very  much  like  the  white 
slaves  sold  in  the  old  times  to  the  West  Indies,  except  that  they 
were  toiling  not  for  another's  profit,  but  merely  for  their  own  sub- 
sistence and  that  of  their  fellow  convicts.  On  the  expiration  of 
their  time,  a  small  portion  of  land,  with  stock  and  implements,  was 
sometimes  given  to  them.  In  after  times,  when  a  class  of  wealtliy 
people  had  arisen,  formed  partly  of  the  freed  convicts,  or 
emancipists,  and  partly  of  free  settlers,  the  convicts  were  dis- 
tributed by  the  governor  among  them.  This  was  a  much  better 
way  of  disposing  of  them,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  than 
the  plan  of  government  farms,  and  gradually  the  government  was 


THESOUTHSEA  183 

1867-1910 

able  to  discontinue  the  old  system,  to  sell  the  farms,  and  pass  over 
all  the  convicts  to  private  people.  From  the  moral  point  of  view 
the  new  system  was  open  to  grave  objections.  Discipline  was 
relaxed  and  a  corrupting  element  introduced  among  the  free  set- 
tlers. Such  were  the  elements  of  which  Australia  was  origi- 
nally formed.  Similar  convict  settlements  were  also  made  on 
Norfolk  Island ;  but  they  never  prospered,  and  after  a  trial  of 
several  years  were  abandoned. 

The  project  of  shipping  off  English  men  and  women  by 
wholesale  to  a  coast  many  thousand  miles  off,  where  there  were 
known  to  be  no  natural  means  of  subsistence,  had  been  opposed 
on  humane  grounds  by  the  philanthropist  Howard.  Owing  to 
their  ignorance  of  farming,  and  the  uncertainty  of  the  arrival  of 
stores  from  England,  the  poor  convicts  were  often  reduced  to  great 
straits.  They  often  lived  on  half  rations ;  sometimes  they  only  had  a 
single  cob  of  Indian  corn  a  day.  Sometimes  they  lived  on  pounded 
grass  and  the  flesh  of  wild  dogs.  Besides  this,  the  moral  condition 
of  the  people  was  at  the  lowest  ebb.  This  was  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  considering  who  they  were ;  but  no  means  whatever  were 
employed  to  ameliorate  it.  The  governor's  authority  was  despotic, 
and  he  was  often  obliged  to  employ  the  worst  ruffians  to  keep  the 
rest  in  order.  Besides  this,  the  home  government  embarrassed  him 
by  sending  out  to  Sydney  a  regiment  called  the  New  South  Wales 
Corps.  There  was  really  no  necessity  for  soldiers  in  the  colony, 
and  this  regiment  soon  became  a  great  abuse.  It  made  the  morals 
of  the  colony  worse  and  worse ;  its  officers  defied  and  perplexed  the 
governor,  and  they  obtained  from  the  government  a  monopoly  of 
rum,  which  was  long  the  principal  import  of  Sydney.  It  was  also 
its  currency,  for  a  bottle  of  rum  was  the  unit  of  mercantile  value. 
For  twenty  years  and  more  no  one  at  home  gave  a  thought  to  New 
South  Wales,  or  "  Botany  Bay,"  as  it  was  still  erroneously  called, 
unless  in  vague  horror  and  compassion  for  the  poor  creatures  who 
lived  there  in  exile  and  starvation.  The  only  civilizing  element  in 
the  place  was  the  presence  of  a  devoted  clergyman  named  Johnson, 
who  had  voluntarily  accompanied  the  first  batch  of  convicts.  John- 
son labored  unceasingly  among  the  convicts ;  he  built  a  church  for 
them  at  his  own  expense,  but  they  soon  burned  it  down.  The  only 
historical  fact  of  the  time  is  the  circumnavigation  of  Tasmania, 
which  had  formerly  been  supposed  to  be  part  of  the  main  land,  by 
Flinders  and  Bass,  two  of  the  government  staff*  at  Sydney.     To 


184  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

this  island  the  convict  settlement  of  Norfolk  Island  was  removed 
in  1807. 

Colonel  Lachlan  IMacqiiarie  entered  on  the  office  of  governor 
in  1810,  and  ruled  the  settlement  for  twelve  years.  His  adminis- 
tration was  the  first  turning  point  in  its  history.  Macquarie  was 
an  able  and  energetic  governor,  and  he  began  his  work  with  some 
advantages.  The  New  South  Wales  Corps  had  been  ordered 
home;  the  government  kept  him  well  supplied  with  funds,  as  well 
as  with  convict  labor,  and  he  had  the  experience  of  twenty  years 
to  guide  him.  Macquarie  saw  that  the  best  and  cheapest  way  of 
ruling  the  convicts  was  to  make  them  freemen  as  soon  as  possible. 
Before  his  time,  the  governors  had  looked  on  the  convicts  as  slaves, 
to  be  worked  for  the  profit  of  the  government  and  of  the  free  set- 
tlers. Macquarie  did  all  he  could  to  elevate  the  class  of  emancipists, 
and  to  encourage  the  convicts  to  persevere  in  sober  industry  in 
the  hope  of  one  day  acquiring  a  respectable  position.  He  began  to 
discontinue  the  government  farms,  and  to  employ  the  convicts  in 
road-making,  so  as  to  extend  the  colony  in  all  directions.  When 
he  came  to  Sydney  the  country  more  than  a  day's  ride  from  the 
town  was  quite  unknown.  The  growth  of  the  settlement  was 
stopped  on  the  west  by  a  range  called  the  Blue  Mountains,  which 
before  his  time  no  one  had  succeeded  in  crossing.  But  in  181 3 
there  came  a  great  drought  upon  the  colony;  the  cattle,  on  which 
e\erything  depended,  were  unable  to  find  food.  Macquarie  sur- 
mised that  there  must  be  plenty  of  pasture  on  the  plains  above  the 
Blue  Mountains;  he  sent  an  exploring  party,  telling  them  that  a 
pass  must  be  discovered.  In  a  few  months,  not  only  was  this  task 
accomplished,  and  the  vast  and  fertile  pastures  of  Bathurst  reached, 
but  a  road  1 30  miles  long  was  made,  connecting  them  with  Sydney. 
The  Lachlan  and  Macquarie  Rivers  were  traced  out  to  the  west  of 
tlie  Blue  ^Mountains.  Besides  this,  coal  was  found  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hunter  River,  and  the  settlement  of  Newcastle  formed.  So 
fast  was  the  progress  that  in  five  years  half  a  million  acres  on  this 
river  had  been  inclosed,  and  half  a  million  sterling  of  capital  em- 
barked in  its  settlement.  ^Macquarie  remodeled  the  town  of  Syd- 
ney, and  built  several  large  public  buildings.  Altogether,  it  is  to 
him  tliat  Xcw  South  Wales  traces  its  prosperity.  His  policy  had 
Its  shoriconiings.  Tic  spent  the  pul)]ic  money  perhaps  too  freely; 
and  in  liis  eagerness  fnr  tlie  cause  of  the  emancipists,  he  kept  back 
the  tide  of  ircc  scalers,  who  would  otherwise  have  poured  much 


THE     SOUTH     SKA  185 

1300   1910 

faster  into  the  colony.  But  as  his  a(hninistration  went  on,  very 
favorable  news  of  the  colony  began  to  circulate  at  home,  and  when 
it  ceased,  this  exclusive  policy  was  reversed.  When  it  became 
known  that  the  penal  settlement  was  gradually  becoming  a  free 
colony,  and  that  Sydney  and  its  population  were  rapidly  changing 
their  character,  English  and  Scotch  people  soon  bethought  them  of 
emigrating  to  the  new  country.  Macquarie  returned  home  in  1822, 
leaving  New  South  Wales  four  times  as  popuUnis,  and  twenty 
times  as  large  as  when  he  went  out,  and  many  years  in  advance  of 
what  it  might  have  been  under  a  less  able  and  energetic  governor. 
The  discovery  of  the  fine  pastures  beyond  the  Blue  Mountains 
settled  the  destiny  of  the  colony.  The  settlers  came  up  thither 
with  their  flocks  long  before  Macquarie's  road  was  finished;  and 
it  turned  out  that  the  downs  of  Australia  were  the  best  sheep-walks 
in  the  world.  The  sheep  thrives  better  there,  and  produces  fiiier 
and  more  abundant  wool,  than  anywhere  else.  John  Macarthur,  a 
lieutenant  in  the  New  South  Wales  Corps,  had  spent  several  years 
in  studying  the  effect  of  the  Australian  climate  upon  the  sheep; 
and  he  rightly  surmised  that  the  staple  of  the  colony  would  be  its 
fine  wool.  In  1803  he  went  to  England  and  procured  some  pure 
Spanish  merino  sheep  from  the  flock  of  George  III.  It  was  then  a 
capital  crime  to  export  these  sheep  from  Spain,  and  they  were, 
therefore,  only  to  be  got  through  royal  favor.  The  Privy  Council 
listened  to  his  wool  projects,  and  he  received  a  large  grant  of  land. 
iMacarthur  had  found  out  the  true  w'ay  to  Australian  i:)rosperity. 
When  the  great  upland  pastures  were  discovered,  the  merino  breed 
was  well  established  in  the  colony;  and  the  sheep  owners,  without 
waiting  for  grants,  spread  with  their  flocks  over  immense  tracts 
of  country.  This  was  the  beginning  of  what  is  called  "  Sfjuatting," 
and  of  .Vustralia's  first  great  land  problem.  Waste  lands  were 
the  property  of  the  Crown,  .and  it  had  been  tlie  custom  to  grant 
them  in  large  or  small  parcels  to  settlers.  The  squatters  with  tlieir 
flocks  and  herds,  under  the  care  of  a  few  "  stock  riders,"  occupied 
immense  districts  far  beyond  the  settled  area.  They  spent  nothing 
on  the  land  itself  and  took  their  chances  on  being  dispossessed  as 
the  settled  area  widened.  In  the  meantime  their  undisturbed  \w>- 
session  gave  them  indelinite  claims  of  a  vested  interest.  .\  colonial 
statute  of  1833  attempted  to  prevent  encroachment  on  the  Crown 
lands,  but  it  was  impossible  to  enforce  it  against  the  squatters. 
Governor  Bourke,  in  1836,  divided  the  territory  beyond  the  settlcil 


186  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

area  into  pastoral  districts  and  granted  to  the  squatters  temporary 
licenses  to  occupy  their  "  runs,"  as  they  called  the  great  districts 
where  they  pastured  their  flocks.  For  this  privilege  they  paid  a 
small  fee.  In  1839  this  was  legalized  by  a  colonial  statute,  which 
provided  for  a  body  of  "  border  police  "  to  keep  order  in  the  pas- 
toral districts.  The  squatters  themselves,  by  mutual  agreement, 
fixed  the  limits  of  their  runs  and  finally  claimed  a  permanent  inter- 
est in  them. 

The  manufacture  of  wool  is  perhaps  the  oldest  industry  in 
the  world;  it  now  took  an  entirely  fresh  start.  Wool  had  from 
early  times  been  the  chief  English  staple;  and  the  manufactures 
of  England  were  capable  of  absorbing  it  in  unlimited  quantities. 
But  the  fine  Australian  wool,  especially  after  the  invention  of 
the  combing  machine,  gave  an  unexpected  stimulus  to  the  English 
worsted  manufacture,  and  this  quickly  reacted  upon  the  colony. 
Hundreds  upon  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  the  great  Australian 
downs  were  now  explored  and  stocked  with  sheep  for  the  Eng- 
lish wool  market.  The  Australian  Agricultural  Company,  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  successful  mercantile  concerns  of  the 
century,  was  formed  at  home;  and  from  this  time,  in  spite  of  reac- 
tions and  reverses,  the  colony  came  to  have  a  real  commercial 
existence.  It  was  in  the  time  of  Macquarie's  successor.  Sir  Thomas 
Brisbane,  that  the  prospects  of  New  South  Wales  became  generally 
known  in  England.  Free  immigrants,  each  bringing  more  or  less 
capital  with  him,  now  poured  in,  and  the  demand  for  labor  became 
enormous.  At  first  the  penal  settlements  were  renewed  as  depots 
for  the  supply  of  labor,  and  it  was  even  proposed  that  the  convicts 
should  be  sold  by  auction  on  their  arrival,  but  in  the  end  the  influx 
of  free  laborers  entirely  altered  the  question.  In  Brisbane's  time, 
and  that  of  his  successor.  Sir  Ralph  Darling,  wages  fell  and  work 
became  scarce  in  England,  and  English  workingmen  now  turned 
their  attention  to  Australia.  Hitherto  the  people  had  been  either 
convicts  or  free  settlers  of  more  or  less  wealth,  and  between  these 
classes  there  was  great  bitterness  of  feeling,  each,  naturally  enough, 
thinking  that  the  colony  existed  for  their  own  exclusive  benefit. 
The  free  laborers  who  now  poured  in  greatly  contributed  in  course 
of  time  to  fusing  the  population  into  one.  In  Brisbane's  time, 
trial  by  jury  and  a  free  press  were  introduced.  The  finest  pastures 
in  Australia,  the  Darling  Downs,  near  Moreton  Bay,  were  dis- 
covered  and   settled.     The  rivers  which  pour  into   Tvloreton  Bay 


THESOUTHSEA  187 

1800  1910 

were  explored :  one  of  them  was  named  the  Brisbane,  and  a  few 
miles  from  its  mouth  the  town  of  the  same  name,  now  the  capital 
of  the  colony  of  Queensland,  was  founded ;  and  other  explora- 
tions in  his  time  led  to  the  foundation  of  a  second  independent 
colony.  The  Macquarie  was  traced  beyond  the  marshes,  in 
which  it  was  supposed  to  lose  itself,  and  named  the  Darling,  and 
the  Murray  River  was  discovered.  The  tracing  out  of  the  Murray 
River  by  the  adventurous  traveler  Sturt,  led  to  a  colony  on  the  site 
which  he  named  South  Australia.  In  Darling's  time  the  Swan 
River  Colony,  now  called  Western  Australia,  was  commenced. 
Darling  discontinued  the  wasteful  practice  of  free  grants  of  land 
to  wealthy  people.  He  was  the  first  to  sell  the  land  at  a  small  fixed 
price,  on  the  system  adopted  in  America,  and  he  thus  formed  a 
fund  which  was  afterward  employed  in  carrying  out  laborers  and 
artisans  to  the  colony  free  of  expense.  This  system  was  settled 
and  improved  in  the  time  of  his  successor. 

The  foundation  of  the  colony  on  the  Swan  River  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  desire  of  the  English  at  home  that  every  part  of  the  Aus- 
tralian shores  that  was  suitable  for  colonies  should  be  occupied 
in  the  name  of  England  as  soon  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the  nature 
of  the  Swan  River  site  was  known,  an  expedition  was  sent  there 
in  1829,  and  two  towns,  the  Port  of  Freemantle,  and  the  town  of 
Perth,  twelve  miles  up  the  river,  were  founded.  A  small  settlement 
on  King  George's  Sound,  at  the  southwest  angle  of  the  continent, 
founded  from  Sydney  in  1826,  was  now  taken  over  by  the  new  col- 
ony. It  afforded  the  best  harbor  on  the  south  coast  and  the  little 
town  of  Albany  soon  became  a  port  of  call  for  vessels  from  Europe 
bound  further  east,  while  the  center  of  settlement  at  Perth  and 
Freemantle  remained  for  a  long  time  comparatively  isolated.  In 
tlie  Swan  River  settlement  vast  free  grants  of  land  were  made, 
one  man  receiving  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  acres.  For  some 
years  settlers  continued  to  arrive  in  fair  numbers,  but  they  were 
soon  carried  off  by  the  stronger  attractions  and  quicker  growth 
of  the  eastern  colonics.  Resides,  there  were  difficulties  with  tlie 
robust  blacks  of  western  Australia  which  did  not  exist  in  tlie 
east ;  the  best  part  of  the  land  had  been  granted  away,  and  there 
was  not  convict  labor.  After  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
eastern  colonies,  the  contrast  became  even  more  decided.  There 
was  no  gold  in  western  Australia,  and  its  small  laboring  popula- 
tion  diminished   more   and    more.      Free   passages   from   England 


188  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

were  granted,  but  the  immigrants  soon  found  out  the  disadvantages 
of  the  place,  and  emigrated  afresh  eastward.  At  the  foundation  of 
the  colony  the  Colonial  Office  had  promised  that  under  no  circum- 
stances would  convicts  be  sent  there,  but  at  last  it  became  clear  that 
the  only  thing  to  be  done  was  to  bring  to  western  Australia  the 
convict  labor  which  the  eastern  colonies  were  able  to  discard,  and 
during  the  ten  years  after  1850  as  many  as  ten  thousand  convicts 
were  sent  hither.  This  resource  saved  the  colony  from  extinction  ; 
but  even  the  convicts  got  away  to  the  eastern  colonies  as  soon  as 
they  could,  and  in  consequence  of  complaints  from  these  colonies, 
which  w^re  anxious  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  convict  element,  the 
transportation  to  western  Australia  was  discontinued  in  1868. 
This  was  done  against  the  protest  of  the  west  Australians  them- 
selves for  the  convicts  made  necessary  large  expenditures  of  Brit- 
ish capital  in  the  colony,  and  created  a  steady  market  for  provi- 
sions. Under  this  stimulus  agriculture  revived,  new  lands  had 
been  taken  up  and  with  the  proceeds  free  emigrants  had  been  sent 
out  on  the  general  system  applied  to  all  the  colonies.  Nevertheless 
the  abolition  of  convict  transportation  caused  no  disaster.  New 
industries  had  sprung  up — coal  mining,  the  guano  trade,  horse 
breeding  for  the  army  in  India.  At  last  gold  was  discovered  in 
1882.  The  steady  progress  of  the  colony  warranted  the  grant  of 
full  self-government  in  1890.  Since  then  new  gold  fields  have  been 
opened  up,  railways  have  been  built,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  popu- 
lation has  placed  western  Australia  abreast  of  the  other  colonies. 

Van  Diemen's  Land  was  occupied  as  a  penal  settlement  by  ex- 
peditions from  Sydney  in  1804.  Hobart,  which  later  became  the 
capital  of  the  whole  island,  was  founded  in  the  south,  and  Laun- 
ceston  in  the  north.  The  country  proved  to  be  well  watered  and 
fertile.  In  1807  the  island  was  for  the  first  time  crossed  from 
north  to  south  and  soon  after  a  road  was  opened  from  Launceston 
to  Hobart.  In  1806  a  severe  famine  led  to  the  employment  of  some 
f)f  the  convicts  in  hunting.  ]Many  escaped  and  took  up  the  con- 
genial employment  of  robbery  for  a  livelihood.  This  was  the 
origin  of  the  "  bushrangers,''  who  for  twenty  years  were  a  terror 
to  lonely  farms  and  outlying  settlements.  ]\Ieanwhile  progress  was 
made.  W'licat  began  to  be  exported  in  1S15  and  wool  in  1819. 
Two  years  later  the  population  was  over  7000.  Free  settlers  arrived 
in  considerable  numbers  and  began  to  ojjposc  tlie  convict  system, 
here  at  its  wor^t,  since  tlic  prisoners  were  for  tlie  most  part  in- 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  189 

1800- 19  lO 

corrigibles  from  tlie  other  penal  settlements.  Horrible  tales  were 
told  of  Macquarie  Harbor  and  Port  Arthur,  where  the  most 
degraded  criminals  were  confined.  In  1835  the  free  settlers  made 
a  formal  petition  to  the  imperial  government  for  the  abolition  of 
convict  transportation.  By  1846  the  population  had  increased  to 
40,000  and  transportation  was  finally  abolished  in  1853.  In  1856 
the  island  became  a  separate  colony  with  a  representative  govern- 
ment, and  its  name  was  changed  to  Tasmania.  By  this  time  the 
race  of  aborigines  was  practically  extinct.  The  last  native  died  in 
1872. 

Governor  Darling  returned  to  England  from  New  South 
Wales  in  1831  ;  and  the  six  years'  administration  of  his  successor, 
Sir  Richard  Bourke.  marks  a  fresh  turning  point  in  Australian 
histor}^  In  his  time  the  colony  threw  off  two  great  offshoots.  Port 
Phillip,  on  which  now  stands  the  great  city  of  Melbourne,  had  been 
discovered  in  1802,  and  in  the  next  year  the  government  sent 
hither  a  convict  colony.  This  did  not  prosper,  and  this  fine  site 
was  neglected  for  thirty  years,  except  for  a  second  unsuccessful 
attempt  at  a  convict  settlement  in  1825.  When  the  sudden  rise 
of  New  South  Wales  began,  the  squatters  began  to  settle  to  the 
west  and  north  of  Port  Phillip ;  and  the  government  at  once  sent 
an  exploring  party,  who  reported  UK^st  favorably  of  the  country 
around.  In  1834  the  Henty  family,  having  gone  from  England 
to  Western  Australia  and  k)st  tlieir  fortune  tliere.  settled  at  Port- 
land Bay  and  engaged  in  wlialing  and  fanning.  Their  settlement 
was  reluctantly  recognized  by  the  imperial  government  in  1835. 
In  the  same  year  a  larger  settlement  was  made  near  Port  Phillip 
upon  lands  purchased  from  the  aborigines  by  newcomers  from 
Tasmania  led  by  Batman  and  Fawkner.  The  l^nglish  Government 
did  not  recognize  the  validity  of  their  purchase,  hut  paid  them  a 
lump  sum  in  compensation.  It  was  evident  that  settlers  could  not 
be  kept  out  of  the  region.  In  1836  Governor  Bourke  proclaimed 
this  new  land,  wliich  had  been  called,  fr(jm  its  rich  promise,  Aus- 
tralia Felix,  open  for  colonization,  and  appointed  a  resident  police 
magistrate.  Under  ]>ourke's  directions  the  site  of  a  capital  was 
laid  out,  to  be  called  ^lelbournc,  in  honor  of  the  Fnglisli  prime 
minister.  This  \v;is  in  1837,  ^"  ^'^''^  the  beginning  of  the  colonv 
corresponds  ncar]\-  with  that  oi  Ouccn  Victoria's  reign;  a  circum- 
stance which  afterward  led  to  its  being  named  \'ictoria.  In  183c) 
a  "  superintendent  "  was  ajipointcd  for  tlie  district  with  the  powers 


190  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

of  a  lieutenant  governor  under  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales. 
In  1842  Melbourne  received  a  municipal  charter  and  a  movement 
began  for  separation  from  the  mother  colony.  This  was  author- 
ized by  the  British  Parliament  in  1850  and  the  new  government 
was  created  July  i,  1851.  The  colony  then  had  a  population  of 
77,000,  with  a  large  revenue  and  thriving  trade.  The  chief  in- 
dustry was  agriculture  and  sheep  raising. 

Further  west  still,  a  second  new  colony  arose  on  the  site  dis- 
covered by  Sturt  in  1829.  This  was  called  South  Australia,  and 
the  first  governor  arrived  there  at  the  end  of  the  year  1836.  The 
intended  capital  was  named  Adelaide,  in  honor  of  the  Queen  of 
William  IV.  Both  the  new  colonies  were  commenced  on  a  new 
system,  called,  from  its  inventor,  the  Wakefield  system,  but  the 
founders  of  South  Australia  were  able  to  carry  it  out  most  effec- 
tually, because  they  were  quite  independent  of  the  experience  and 
the  prejudices  of  the  Sydney  government.  Edward  Gibbon  Wake- 
field was  an  English  gentleman  with  influential  political  connec- 
tions. Unfortunately  he  had  never  seen  Australia,  and  in  fact 
remained  a  stranger  to  it  until  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  He 
missed  in  Sydney,  with  its  many  leading  and  wealthy  men  who  had 
once  been  convicts  or  rough  laboring  immigrants,  much  that  he 
thought  necessary  to  these  new  nations,  and  his  notion  was  that 
the  new  colonies  ought  to  be  made  "  fairly  to  represent  English 
society."  His  plan  was  to  arrest  the  strong  democratic  tendencies 
of  the  new  community,  and  to  reproduce  in  Australia  the  strong 
distinction  of  classes  which  was  found  in  England.  His  economic 
theories  of  colonization  are  more  important  than  his  political  and 
social  prejudices.  He  attempted  to  formulate  the  rules  of  success- 
ful colonization  and  thus  created  a  rigid  system  supposed  to  be 
scientific  and  universally  applicable.  The  abuse  from  which  the 
provinces  of  Canada  had  suffered  in  early  times  had  been  repeated 
in  Australia.  Large  tracts  of  land  had  been  wastefully  granted 
to  individuals  or  corporations  upon  insufficient  consideration  or  for 
no  consideration  at  all.  This  had  been  followed  and  accompanied 
by  sales  at  auction  often  in  large  blocks  and  at  a  very  low  price. 
The  proprietor  of  one  of  the  vast  grants  must  either  sell  or  lease 
the  land  in  smaller  lots  or  hold  it  unimproved  for  an  increase  in 
value.  The  chief  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  Western  Australia 
had  been  certain  enormous  grants  of  the  most  available  land  in  the 
colony. 


THESOUTHSEA  191 

1800-19i0 

Wakefield  contrasted  with  this  the  sucessful  land  system  of  the 
United  States,  where  the  pubHc  lands  were  accurately  surveyed  and 
sold  in  small  lots  to  actual  cultivators  at  a  low  price  He  would, 
however,  sell  at  a  relatively  high  price.  He  considered  a  steady 
supply  of  labor  essential  to  the  success  of  the  colony,  and  objected 
to  convict  or  slave  labor.  But  in  colonies  and  other  new  countries 
land  is  abundant  and  cheap,  so  that  free  laborers  purchase  land  for 
themselves  and  are  drawn  away  from  service  for  wages.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  put  some  indirect  restraint  upon  them  to 
prevent  or  delay  their  transformation.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  the  sale  of  the  public  lands  at  a  sufificiently  high  price.  The 
laborer  will  then  be  compelled  to  work  for  wages  two  or  three 
years  after  his  immigration,  or  even  longer,  before  he  can  purchase 
land  for  himself  either  from  the  public  or  from  some  other  person 
who  has  purchased  from  the  public  at  a  high  price.  The  total  pro- 
ceeds of  public  land  sales  ought  to  be  applied  to  bringing  into  the 
colony  immigrant  laborers  from  the  mother  countiy,  whereby  an 
exact  and  automatic  equilibrium  will  be  maintained  between  the 
area  of  cultivated  lands,  the  number  of  laborers,  and  the  amount 
of  capital  in  the  colony.  The  price  of  land  ought  to  be  uniform 
without  regard  to  quality,  hence  sales  at  auction  as  commonly 
practiced  in  Australia  should  nof  be  permitted.  The  system  thus 
applied  in  its  entirety  is  certain  to  prevent  the  scattering  of  popu- 
lation over  too  wide  an  area,  as  is  common  in  new  colonies.  The 
"  sufficient  price  "  at  which  land  should  be  sold  in  any  given  col- 
ony could  be  exactly  determined :  for  an  area  needing  the  labor  of 
one  man  for  its  profitable  cultivation  the  price  should  be  exactly 
equal  to  the  cost  of  importing  one  laborer  from  the  mother  country. 
If  the  selling  price  were  higher  population  would  be  too  much  con- 
centrated, and  if  lower  too  much  scattered  for  the  highest  produc- 
tivity: and  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  proceeds  of  land  sales  were 
even  in  part  diverted  to  uses  other  than  the  importation  of  new- 
laborers,  the  equilibrium  of  land,  labor,  and  capital  would  likewise 
be  destroyed  with  like  results. 

As  a  matter  of  economic  theory  the  fundamental  error  of 
this  system  is  that  tlie  condition  upon  which  the  "  sufficient  price  " 
in  any  colony  depends,  to  wit.  the  amount  of  land  which  one 
laborer  can  profitabl}'  cultivate,  is  not  fixed,  but  itself  depends  upon 
the  rate  of  wages,  for  the  lower  the  wages  the  more  laborers  can 
be  profitably  employed   on   a  given   area.     However   theoretically 


192  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

defective,  the  Wakefield  system  of  systematic  colonization  con- 
tained three  truths,  important  for  Australia,  vi::;. :  in  a  colony 
raising  for  export  crops  which  require  a  large  capital  and  a 
numerous  force  of  laborers  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  large  sup- 
ply of  laborers  for  wages,  and  the  best  means  for  attaining  this 
end  under  a  system  of  free  labor  is  to  fix  a  high  selling  price  for 
uncultivated  lands  and  apply  the  proceeds  to  the  effective  promotion 
of  immigration,  but  the  exact  price  must  be  determined  according 
to  all  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  colony. 

Though  sharply  criticised  at  first  by  many  economists,  Wake- 
field's theory  won  its  way  to  recognition  among  students,  and  was 
applied  by  the  colonies  and  the  home  government  in  a  modified 
form  with  remarkable  success.  Thus  New  South  Wales  in  1831 
put  an  end  to  the  practice  of  free  grants,  and  fixed  the  minimum 
price  of  land  sold  at  auction  at  five  shillings  an  acre,  increased  in 
1838  to  twelve  shillings,  applying  the  proceeds  in  part  upon  public 
works,  but  chiefly  for  promoting  immigration.  By  the  Crown 
Land  Sales  Act  of  1842  the  minimum  price  was  fixed  at  twenty 
shillings  per  acre  in  all  the  colonies.  In  the  district  of  Port  Phillip, 
which  afterward  became  the  colony  of  Victoria,  the  price  was  still 
higher.  The  result  was  great  stimulus  to  immigration,  without 
which  these  far  distant  lands  might  have  remained  comparatively 
unpeopled  until  the  discovery  of  gold.  The  same  system  was  ap- 
plied to  Western  Australia,  but  the  most  desirable  land  there  had 
in  the  first  instance  been  granted  to  a  few  liolders  who  sold  it  in 
competition  with  the  public  land  or  withheld  it  from  sale  alto- 
gether, so  that  the  results  were  comparatively  disappointing.  In 
thinking  of  the  Wakefield  system  we  must  remember  that  pastoral 
lands  were  managed  on  a  different  plan,  already  described. 

Tlie  most  thorough-going  application  of  Wakefield's  theories 
was  made  in  South  Australia,  founded  as  a  working  model  of  the 
system  in  its  entirety.  An  English  statute  passed  in  1834  had  pro- 
vided for  the  appointment  by  the  king  in  council  of  a  board  of 
commissioners  in  England  to  manage  the  land  system  of  the  colony 
and  superintend  the  emigration  of  settlers,  with  a  resident  com- 
nn'ssioner  in  tlie  colony  acting  under  their  direction.  There  was 
also  a  governor  and  council  for  executive  and  legislative  business, 
with  tlie  prf)misc  of  a  constitution  when  the  population  should  reacli 
50,000.  for  tlie  colony  was  to  be  entirely  independent  of  New  South 
Wales.    The  transportation  of  convicts  to  the  colony  was  expressly 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  193 

1800  1910 

prohibited.  Land  could  be  sold  only  at  public  sale  for  cash,  and  at 
a  uniform  price,  not  less  than  twelve  shillinf]^  per  acre,  for  any 
given  period,  without  regard  to  situation  or  quantity  ;  the  entire  pro- 
ceeds of  land  sales  and  pasturage  licenses  to  be  used  to  assist  the 
immigration  of  persons  under  thirty  years  of  age  of  both  sexes  in 
substantially  equal  proportions.  As  a  condition  precedent  the  com- 
missioners must  deposit  20,cxDo/.  as  security  in  the  imperial  treas- 
ury and  intending"  purchasers  of  land  an  additional  35,000/. 
Thereafter  the  commissioners  might  borrow  on  the  security  of  the 
land  fund  not  over  50,000/.  for  assisting  emigration  to  the  colony, 
and  200,000/.  more  for  general  purposes  to  be  charged  against 
the  future  colonial  revenues.  This  was  in  its  essence  a  commer- 
cial speculation.  It  was  believed  that  a  colony  could  be  founded 
without  any  sacrifice  or  expense  by  the  mother  country,  through 
the  simple  expedient  of  mortgaging  its  future  to  defray  the  initial 
expense.  This  "self-supporting  principle"  proved  to  be  a  delu- 
sion. Colonial  beginnings  are  costly  and  no  return  on  the  invest- 
ment can  be  expected  during  the  years  when  the  foundations  are 
being  laid.  Nevertheless  the  plan  was  enthusiastically  received, 
purchasers  came  forward,  an  expedition  was  sent  out  in  1836,  and 
the  site  of  Adelaide  occupied.  For  a  time  all  went  well.  The  uni- 
form price  of  public  land  rose  to  twenty  shillings  per  acre,  large 
(|uantities  were  sold  and  imnn'grants  were  poured  into  the  colony 
by  the  use  of  the  proceeds.  This,  however,  consumed  the  only 
public  revenues  of  any  moment,  and  the  expenses  of  colonial  ad- 
ministration were  met  by  loans.  The  first  governor  was  soon 
recalled.  His  successor.  Colonel  Cawler,  undertook  extravagant 
expenditures  for  public  buildings,  concentrating  the  laborers  at 
Adelaide  when  they  were  needed  on  the  farms.  A  wild  speculation 
in  land  broke  out.  Capitalists  neglected  their  estates  to  gamble  in 
town  lots.  Adelaide  became  the  scene  of  an  Australian  "  bubble." 
The  land-jobbers  and  money-lenders  made  fortunes,  but  the  people 
who  emigrated,  mostly  belonging  to  the  middle  and  upper  classes, 
found  the  scheme  to  be  a  delusion.  Land  rapidly  rose  in  value, 
and  as  rapidly  sank,  and  lots  for  which  the  immigrants  had  paid 
high  prices  became  almost  wortlilcss.  1"he  laborers  enu'gratcd  else- 
where, and  so  did  those  of  the  capitalists  who  had  anything  left. 
The  governor  of  Adelaide  went  on  as  long  as  he  could;  hut  in 
1840,  tlie  F.n<;"lisli  Cn  nernnient  (li>lionorc(l  bills  10  a  large 
amount  wliicli  he  kad  drawn  on  them  for  ilie  ex[)enscs  of  gLt\-ern- 


194  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

ment.  The  sale  of  public  lands  and  assisted  immigration  stopped 
in  August  of  that  year.  The  colony  was  bankrupt  and  the  home 
government  was  forced  to  render  financial  aid,  thus  discard- 
ing the  "  self-supporting  principle."  The  depression  of  South 
Australia,  however,  was  but  temporary.  It  contains  the  best  grain 
land  in  the  whole  island ;  and  hence  it  of  course  soon  became,  the 
chief  source  of  the  food  supply  of  the  neighboring  colonies,  besides 
exporting  large  quantities  of  grain  to  England.  It  contains  rich 
mines  of  copper,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  wool ;  and  in  the 
course  of  time,  as  we  shall  see,  the  colony  quite  retrieved  its 
position. 

Port  Phillip,  founded  at  about  the  same  time  as  South  Austra- 
lia, was  from  the  first  far  more  prosperous,  although  not  so  much 
show  was  made  by  the  founders.  The  immigrants  at  once  sought 
the  downs  and  began  breeding  sheep,  or  settled  on  the  rivers  and 
devoted  themselves  to  farming,  instead  of  settling  on  the  site  of 
the  capital  and  gambling  for  land.  Besides,  it  was  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Bourke,  who  steadily  resisted  the  whole  tendency  of 
the  Wakefield  system,  though  he  carried  out  the  plan  of  selling 
land  at  a  moderate  price,  and  laying  quit-rents  upon  the  rich  squat- 
ters, so  as  to  form  a  fund  for  promoting  the  immigration  of  laborers. 
The  year  185 1  is  memorable  in  Victoria  for  two  things,  its  political 
independence,  and  the  discovery  of  gold.  Gold  was  first  found 
near  Bathurst  in  New  South  Wales;  but  shortly  afterward  the 
richest  gold-field  the  world  had  ever  seen  was  discovered  at  Ballarat 
in  Victoria.  A  vast  influx  of  population  followed,  first  from  the 
adjacent  settlements,  and  then  from  Europe  and  China.  The  city 
of  Melbourne  rose  as  if  by  magic;  in  four  years  the  population  of 
Victoria  had  increased  five-fold,  and  its  imports  and  exports  as 
much  as  twelve-fold.  By  this  time  the  Australian  Colonies  Act 
had  been  passed,  and  the  colonies  had  to  settle  the  shape  which  they 
wished  their  permanent  constitutions  to  take.  Victoria  was  ahead 
in  this  respect  of  the  older  colony  of  Sydney.  It  had  in  four  years 
quite  outgrown  its  legislative  council,  and  the  demands  of  the  com- 
munity boldly  embraced  an  elective  upper  house,  and  a  lower  house, 
sitting  only  for  three  years,  and  constituted  on  the  principles  of 
the  ballot,  the  abolition  of  the  property  qualification,  equal  electoral 
districts,  and  manhood  suffrage.  The  new  constitution  on  this 
basis  was  proclaimed  in  1855. 

The  beginnings  of  South  Australia,  as  we  have  seen,  were  un- 


THESOUTHSEA  196 

160O-191O 

promising;  but  the  wliole  face  of  affairs  was  changed  in  a  few 
years  by  tlie  discovery  of  a  new  source  of  wealth.  South  Australia 
owes  her  prosperity  to  her  mines  of  copper,  as  Victoria  owes  hers 
to  her  mines  of  gold.  The  Kapunda  mines  were  discovered  in 
1843,  ^"fl  those  of  Burra-Burra  in  1845;  and  in  the  meantime  the 
government  of  the  colony  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  Sir  George 
Grey,  the  successor  of  Colonel  Gavvler,  under  whom  it  gradually 
began  to  retrieve  its  fortunes.  He  cut  down  the  rate  of  wages  for 
government  employees,  and  refused  to  begin  any  new  public  works 
that  were  not  absolutely  necessary.  Government  expenditure  was 
sharply  reduced,  the  laborers  heretofore  concentrated  in  Adelaide 
were  forced  to  seek  employment  in  agriculture;  the  area  of  culti- 
vated land  increased  eight-fold  in  two  years,  with  but  a  slight 
increase  in  population.  These  measures,  though  for  the  time  un- 
popular, secured  the  permanent  and  increasing  prosperity  of  the 
colony.  Copper  mining  steadily  progressed,  in  spite  of  the  check 
caused  by  the  discovery  of  gold  in  other  colonies,  and  many  more 
rich  mines  were  found,  the  best  being  those  of  Wallaroo  and 
Moonta.  The  production  of  wool,  grain,  and  wine  steadily  in- 
creased, and  wheat  was  sent  from  Adelaide  not  only  to  the  neigh- 
boring colonies,  but  to  the  Cape,  India,  and  China.  Grey  was 
transferred  to  New  Zealand  in  1845,  having  won  the  respect  and 
esteem  of  the  colonists  in  the  meanwhile.  His  successor.  Major 
Robe,  introduced  discord  by  granting  state  aid  to  the  chief  re- 
ligious bodies,  an  unfortunate  and  short-lived  experiment.  He  also 
attempted  without  success  to  exact  a  royalty  on  minerals  produced 
in  the  colony.  The  movement  in  favor  of  representative  govern- 
ment in  South  Australia  has  closely  followed  the  same  movement 
in  Victoria.  From  1842  to  1850  the  colony  was  governed  by  a 
legislative  council  of  eight  persons,  nominated  by  the  Crown;  but  in 
the  latter  year  the  number  was  increased  from  eight  to  twenty-four, 
and  two-thirds  were  to  be  elected  by  the  colonists,  as  in  West- 
ern Australia.  The  Australian  Colonies  Act  empowered  the  coun- 
cil to  choose  such  new  institutions  as  might  be  suitable  to  the 
colony;  and  in  1853,  while  similar  discussions  were  pending  in 
Victoria  and  in  New  South  Wales,  the  council  passed  a  bill  establish- 
ing an  upper  and  a  lower  house,  the  former  being'  nominated  by 
the  Crown  and  the  latter  elected  by  the  people.  The  colonists  peti- 
tioned the  home  government  against  this  constitution  of  the  upper 
house:  like  the  peojile  of  Victoria,  they  wished  their  upper  house 


196  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

to  be  elective,  and  they  gained  their  point.  The  new  constitution 
on  this  basis  was  proclaimed  in  1856.  Li  1842  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment consolidated  the  colonial  debts  at  the  rate  of  three  and 
one-half  per  cent.,  charged  off  the  sum  of  155,000/.  originally  ad- 
vanced to  the  colony,  gave  the  governor  power  to  borrow  for 
future  needs  on  the  credit  of  the  colonial  revenues,  abolished  the 
office  and  powers  of  the  commission  under  which  the  colony  had 
been  founded,  and  made  the  system  of  land  distribution  uniform 
with  that  of  the  other  colonies,  i.  e.,  the  modified  Wakefield  system 
of  sales  at  a  comparatively  high  price  and  use  of  the  proceeds  to 
promote  immigration. 

When  we  consider  that  the  east  coast  of  Australia  is  about 
two  thousand  miles  long,  and  that  Sydney  is  near  the  south  end,  it 
becomes  clear  that  if  settlements  were  to  be  made  along  all  its 
length,  it  would  be  necessary  to  divide  the  colony  for  purposes  of 
government.  After  the  settlement  of  the  Darling  Downs,  the  town 
of  Brisbane,  near  the  old  penal  colony  of  Moreton  Bay,  about  half- 
way up  the  settled  coast,  rapidly  grew  up  into  an  important  place. 
Sheep  owners  and  farmers  went  on  settling  far  away  northward, 
and  Brisbane  soon  tended  to  become  the  capital  of  a  northern  por- 
tion of  New  South  Wales.  Accordingly  in  1859  this  portion  was 
erected  into  a  separate  colony,  with  a  representative  government 
framed  on  the  model  of  that  of  New  South  Wales,  by  the  name  of 
(Queensland.  The  more  northern  shores  of  the  great  East  Austra- 
lian coast  differ  in  one  great  matter  from  those  about  Sydney. 
Tliey  arc  much  hotter,  because  near  the  Equator,  and  much  of  them 
is  actually  within  the  tropics.  Here,  then,  we  naturally  look  for 
something  like  what  we  have  already  met  with  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  we  accordingly  find  that  Queensland  within  the  tropics  is  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  sugar,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  The 
south  of  Queensland  is  at  present  the  most  thickly  settled,  like  New 
South  Wales,  and  wool  is  therefore,  on  the  whole,  its  staple  prod- 
uct. But  the  immense  length  of  tropical  coast  to  the  north  is  not 
suited  for  growing  wool  or  grain:  Rockhampton  is  the  center  of  a 
large  plantatiwn  district  and  still  farther  north  is  a  mining  district 
of  great  pr(j(lncu\encss  whose  }'ield  of  gold,  tin,  copper,  and  silver 
ri\als  the  agricultural  products  of  the  south.  The  laborers  of  tlic 
(jueensland  plantations  are  chiefly  South  Sea  Islanders,  who  are 
imported  under  government  inspection,  and  bound  to  work  for  a 
term  (^t  tln-ee  \ears,  after  wliich  thev  return  home  with  their  sav- 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  197 

1800  1910 

ings,  and,  what  is  far  more  important,  with  new  ideas  of  life. 
Many  of  those  who  have  thus  returned  come  back  to  Queensland 
for  a  second  term  of  labor,  and  we  may  thus  conclude,  in  spite  of 
the  objections  of  philanthropists,  that  this  system  worked  benefit  to 
both  the  parties.  Its  un((uesti()ned  abuses  gave  rise  to  much  agi- 
tation in  the  colony  for  the  prohibition  on  humanitarian  grounds. 
A  combination  of  the  farmers  of  the  south  and  the  miners  and 
stockmen  of  the  north  effected  this  in  1883,  but  after  a  brief  ex- 
periment the  prohibition  was  replaced  by  stringent  regulations. 
As  a  result  of  this  contest  plans  for  dividing  Queensland  into 
three  colonics  came  to  be  urged,  especially  in  the  north.  The  im- 
migration of  Pacific  Island  laborers  into  any  part  of  Australia 
has  been  prohibited  by  an  act  of  the  Australian  Commonwealth 
Parliament  passed  December  17.   1901. 

New  South  Wales  liad  greatly  increased  in  im])()itance 
through  its  own  growth  and  that  of  its  dependencies,  and  to  satisfy 
a  strong  and  growing  feeling,  an  elective  element  was  introduced 
into  the  government  in  1842  by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  then  colonial 
secretary.  New  Zealand  had  been  already  severed  from  the  parent 
colony,  and  the  same  thing  ought  perhaps  to  have  been  at  once 
done  with  Port  Philip.  New  South  Wales  was,  until  1823,  under 
the  despotic  power  of  the  governor,  who  coml)incd  in  his  own  per- 
son the  highest  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  authority.  Gov- 
ernor Macquarie  had  resisted  the  attempt  to  hamper  him  by  any 
sort  of  legislative  council,  but  in  Governor  Brisbane's  time  the 
chief  officials  were  combined  into  something  of  the  s(jrt ;  and  in 
that  of  Governor  Darling,  sc\en  colonists,  nominated  by  the 
Crown,  were  added,  so  as  to  make  up  a  council  of  fifteen.  Civil 
courts  had  been  introduced  in  1814.  their  powers  enlarged  and 
trial  by  jury  in  civil  cases  permitted  in  1823,  freedom  of  the  press 
conceded  in  1824.  and  English  law  established  by  an  imperial 
statute  in  1828.  The  colony  became  self-sustaining  in  1827.  and 
control  of  the  finances  began  to  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  council. 
An  executive  C(nincil  or  ininisiry,  responsible  to  the  governor,  had 
existed  in  New  South  Wales  from  about  1825.  in  South  Australia 
and  Western  Australia  from  the  first,  and  in  \'ictoria,  Queensland, 
and  Tasmania  from  the  time  of  their  separation  from  New  South 
Wales. 

Political  instincts  are  always  strong  in  the  English  race;  dur- 
ing tlie   recent   inlUix   of   settlers   and   cai)ital   the  conduct   of   the 


198  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

government  often  produced  dissatisfaction;  and  Lord  Derby's 
Act  was  well-timed  and,  so  far  as  it  went,  successful.  He  made 
a  legislature  of  one  house,  consisting  of  the  six  chief  officials,  six 
crown  nominees,  and  twenty-four  elected  representatives  of  the 
people,  eighteen  elected  from  the  district  of  Sydney,  and  six  from 
Port  Phillip.  It  was  empowered  to  pass  laws  not  repugnant  to  the 
laws  of  England,  with  full  control  of  the  revenue,  except  a  fixed  sum 
for  the  civil  list,  and  of  the  proceeds  of  land  sales.  Its  acts  were 
subject  to  the  governor's  veto.  The  qualification  for  the  franchise 
was  a  20/.  rental,  or  a  freehold  worth  200/.,  and  that  for  members 
was  fixed  high  in  proportion.  In  the  first  session  of  this  council 
Lowe,  then  a  barrister  at  Sydney,  entered  upon  his  political 
career.  The  council  at  once  began  the  work  of  remodeling  the 
laws  in  accordance  with  the  wants  of  the  colony.  In  1842  munici- 
pal government  on  the  English  model  was  established  in  Sydney, 
and  in  1843  i^i  Melbourne  and  Geelong,  in  Port  Phillip.  The  spirit 
of  independence  was  greatly  strengthened  in  Port  Phillip  by  these 
free  institutions.  In  1850  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  1842  were 
extended  to  Tasmania,  South  Australia,  and  Victoria.  The  next 
year  saw  the  transfer  to  the  colonies  of  the  customs  service — a 
change  rendered  easy  by  the  adoption  of  the  free  trade  policy  in 
England  in  1846,  In  1852  the  colonies  got  control  of  the  gold 
revenue.  Meanwhile  the  transportation  of  convicts  to  the  colonies, 
except  Western  Australia,  had  been  finally  stopped.  But  in  none 
of  the  Australian  colonies  was  there  as  yet  established  a  really  re- 
sponsible government.  In  fact  the  home  government  in  1845 
expressly  refused  to  permit  the  salaried  officials  of  New  South 
Wales  to  sit  in  the  council,  as  the  members  of  the  cabinet  sit  in 
the  British  Parliament.  The  'sudden  importance  to  which  the 
Australian  colonies  were  raised  by  the  discovery  of  gold  came  at 
the  same  time  with  some  vigorous  efforts  which  were  made  in  the 
colonies  themselves  and  by  one  or  two  enlightened  men  at  home, 
for  releasing  them  from  the  tutelage  of  the  Colonial  Office.  The 
undoubted  success  of  the  free  institutions  which  Canada,  after  a 
long  struggle,  had  wrested  from  the  mother  country,  lent  a  strong 
confirmation  to  the  views  of  Roebuck  and  Lowe,  and  at  length, 
by  the  same  Act  of  Parliament  which  established  Victoria  as  a 
separate  colony,  known  as  the  Australian  Government  Act  of 
1850,  Lord  John  Russell's  government  enabled  the  four  colonies 
of  New  Sniith  Wales,  Victoria,   South  Australia,  and  Van  Die- 


THESOUTHSEA  199 

1800-1910 

men's  Land  to  choose  their  own  form  of  government,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  imperial  g-overnment,  by  means  of  popular 
assemblies  composed  of  all  the  inhabitants  who  were  lo/.  house- 
holders or  I  go/,  freeholders.  The  repeal  of  the  imperial  Land 
Sales  Act  removed  the  last  check  upon  the  colonial  legislatures. 
The  colonies  tlien  proceeded  to  make  their  own  constitutions,  which 
were  in  the  end  all  framed  on  the  British  model,  except  that  Vic- 
toria and  Tasmania  chose  to  make  their  upper  house  elective,  as 
Canada  did  soon  afterward,  and  as  tlie  other  Australian  colonies, 
except  Queensland  and  New  Zealand,  have  done.  The  constitu- 
tions were  everywhere  completed  about  the  same  time;  the  first 
real  parliament  of  New  South  Wales  met  in  June,  1856.  Members 
of  the  upper  house  are  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  life. 

The  general  features  of  the  new  constitutions  in  all  the  col- 
onies were  a  broad  franchise,  extending  in  South  Australia  to 
manhood  suft'rage,  some  restrictive  qualifications  for  members  of 
the  lower  house,  an  upper  house  appointed  by  the  Crown  in  New 
South  Wales  and  New  Zealand,  and  elected  in  the  other  colonies 
by  a  narrow  franchise,  holding  office  for  life  in  New  Soutli  Wales 
and  subject  to  a  gradual  rotation  in  the  other  colonies  on  the  model 
of  the  senate  of  the  United  States.  In  practice  it  has  been  found 
that  only  the  elective  upper  houses  have  had  much  power  or  influ- 
ence. Parliaments  were  to  be  elected  every  five  years  and  in  South 
Australia  every  three  years,  unless  sooner  dissolved.  A  session 
was  to  be  held  at  least  once  in  every  year.  The  executive  power 
was  to  be  exercised  by  ministers  responsible  to  the  colonial  par- 
liaments on  the  English  model,  though  this  is  not  very  clearly  ex- 
pressed, being  left  rather  to  implication  and  tradition,  as  in  truth 
it  is  in  England  mainly  a  matter  of  custom  and  not  of  positive  law. 
The  practice  of  "  responsible  government  "  in  this  fashion  was, 
of  course,  wholly  unknown  in  Australia,  and  the  vagueness  of  the 
provisions  upon  this  subject  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  not 
clearly  understood  there.  The  New  Zealand  Constitution  had  no 
reference  whatever  to  responsible  government,  though  the  prac- 
tice was  introduced  there  as  in  other  colonies. 

The  provisions  of  the  Constitution  Act  did  not  extend  to  West 
Australia,  but  representative  institutions  like  those  of  the  other 
colonies  were  promised  to  it  when  it  should  become  entirely  self- 
supporting.  When  the  transportation  of  convicts  to  Western  Aus- 
tralia ceased  a  movement  to  this  end  was  begun,  resulting  in  the 


200  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

creation,  in  1870,  of  a  legislative  council  partly  nominated  by  the 
Crown  and  partly  elected  by  the  people.  The  colony  thereafter 
made  steady  progress  and  in  1890  an  imperial  statute  granted  to 
it  a  legislature  of  two  houses  with  responsible  government.  The 
colony  of  Queensland,  from  its  erection  in  1859  out  of  the  terri- 
tory of  New  South  Wales,  was  endowed  with  full  responsible 
government  on  the  model  of  the  parent  colony.  The  general 
political  tendency  since  the  introduction  of  responsible  govern- 
ment in  the  colonies  has  been  distinctively  democratic,  resulting  in 
manhood  suffrage,  and  in  some  colonies  extending  the  franchise  to 
women  also,  in  voting  by  ballot,  in  shorter  terms  of  parliament,  and 
in  the  payment  of  members.  The  power  of  the  upper  chambers  has 
been  an  obstacle  to  the  smooth  working  of  the  system  of  respon- 
sible government,  since  a  ministry  is  responsible  to  the  lower  house, 
but  cannot  carry  its  measures  if  they  are  blocked  by  the  upper 
house.  Various  devices  have  been  adopted  to  cure  this  evil ;  among 
them  may  be  noted  that  of  South  Australia,  where  if  a  measure 
has  passed  the  lower  house  in  two  successive  parliaments,  a  general 
election  having  intervened,  the  governor  may  dissolve  both  houses 
at  once  or  issue  new  writs  for  one  or  two  members  of  each  con- 
stituency of  the  upper  house.  This  device  recalls  the  power  of  the 
ministry  in  England,  acting  in  the  name  of  the  Crown  to  overcome 
an  adverse  majority  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  the  creation  of  new 
peers.  Since  the  complete  triumph  of  democracy  in  Australia  po- 
litical issues  have  not  been  sharply  defined.  There  are,  of  course, 
protectionists  and  free-traders ;  those  who  are  anxious  for  the  in- 
terests of  the  rich  squatter,  believing  that  the  prosperity  of  the 
c(mntry  depends  entirely  upon  its  wool  growing;  and  those  who 
are  anxious  to  encourage  the  poor  immigrant  farmer  or  ''  free 
selector."  But  the  changes  of  ministry  wliich  so  often  happen  in 
Australia  have  generally  had  but  little  to  do  with  any  recognizable 
body  of  principles,  whether  liberal  or  conservative,  and  generally 
depend  on  local  and  personal  questions.  In  fact,  the  responsible 
government  system  evolved  in  England,  and  admirably  suited  there 
to  the  existing  rivalry  of  two  great  parties  with  definite  and  con- 
flicting principles,  has  seemed  somewhat  ridiculous  in  its  applica- 
tion in  .Vustralia.  Ministers  have  been  frequently  turned  out  of 
ollice  for  trivial  reasons,  and  the  system  of  an  independent  execu- 
tive as  practiced  in  tlie  United  States  seems  to  offer  far  more 
stabilitv. 


THESOUTHSEA  201 

1800-1910 

The  Australian  colonies  have  passed  through  three  well- 
marked  periods  of  development.  From  1788  to  1830  they  were 
sustained  by  the  transportation  of  convicts  thither  on  a  great  scale, 
the  number  of  free  immigrants  was  small  and  the  policy  of  free 
grants  of  land  prevailed.  From  1830  to  185 1  the  Wakefield  sys- 
tem of  land  sales  was  applied  with  more  or  less  thoroughness, 
resulting  in  a  rapid  increase  in  free  immigration  and  a  high  degree 
of  agricultural  prosperity.  Meanwhile  the  stream  of  convicts 
slackened  and  at  last  ceased  altogether.  Up  to  the  close  of  the 
second  period  there  had  been  very  little  spontaneous  immigration. 
The  country  had  been  peopled  by  convicts  who  had  come  under 
restraint,  and  free  laborers  whose  expenses  on  the  journey  had 
been  paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  land  sales.  All  this  was  about  to 
be  changed. 

On  February  12,  1851,  E.  IT.  Hargraves,  who  had  recently 
returned  from  a  fruitless  search  for  gold  in  California,  dis- 
covered alluvial  gold  deposits  in  New  South  Wales  and  reported 
the  facts  to  the  government.  An  official  examination  confirmed 
the  news  on  May  19,  and  the  rush  to  the  diggings  began. 
Similar  discoveries  were  made  in  South  Australia.  Tasmania,  and 
New  Zealand,  but  the  richest  fields  were  in  the  newly  organized 
colony  of  Victoria.  Adventurers  ])oured  in  from  the  neighboring 
colonies,  and  then  from  all  the  world.  In  five  years  the  population 
of  Victoria  rose  from  70,000  to  300.000.  Melbourne  outstripped 
Sydney,  speculation  became  rampant,  land  sold  for  extravagant 
prices,  industry  in  the  other  colonies  was  for  a  time  disorganized 
by  the  drain  of  population  to  the  gold  fields.  From  all  parts  of  the 
world  came  throngs  of  men  of  e\-ery  class,  with  a  large  proportion 
of  doubtful  or  dangerous  elements.  This  inrush  at  first  imposed 
great  ex];)ense  on  the  colonial  governments,  and  at  once  raised 
the  {juestion  of  what  policy  should  be  followed  as  to  mining  on  the 
pul)lic  lands.  To  attempt  to  prevent  it  would  be  futile,  though  the 
law  unquestionably  forbade  it.  The  government  asserted  the  old 
feudal  doctrine  that  all  gold  found  on  either  public  or  private 
lands  belonged  to  the  Crown,  but  ofi'cred  to  grant  licenses  to  dig 
on  public  lands  for  a  small  fee,  tlnis  providing  a  revenue  and  pre- 
serving the  title  of  the  Crown.  Digging  on  private  lands  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner  was  proliibited.  The  license  fee  for 
Crown  lands  was  fixed  at  thirty  shillings.  Xo  servant  or  laborer 
could  get   a   license   without  producing   a   certificate  of   di-cliarge 


202  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

from  his  last  service.  Commissioners  for  the  gold  fields  were  ap- 
pointed to  administer  the  license  system  and  maintain  order. 

The  new  colony  of  Victoria  felt  the  strain  of  the  gold  rush 
most  severely.  It  reached  its  absolute  maximum  there,  and  its 
relative  magnitude  was  greater  still,  so  that  the  old  population  was 
in  a  few  years  fairly  swamped  by  the  newcomers.  The  squatters 
having  the  first  right  to  purchase  their  runs,  and  fearing  that  the 
diggings  would  entice  away  their  laborers,  resented  the  intrusion 
of  the  miners,  forgetting  that  their  own  rights  had  been  acquired 
in  a  similar  manner.  Civil  servants  resigned  and  the  police  de- 
serted wholesale  to  share  in  the  search  for  gold,  and  could  not  be 
restrained  by  the  payment  of  higher  salaries  and  wages.  Military 
aid  was  asked  from  England.  The  land  fund  and  digging  license 
fees  were  transferred  to  the  colony  to  help  meet  the  deficit.  The 
miners  were  not  represented  in  the  legislature,  and  resented  the 
exaction  of  any  license  fee  at  all.  Though  the  fee  was  reduced,  they 
were  not  content.  A  murder  and  an  attempt  at  lynching  precipi- 
tated an  outbreak  at  Eureka.  The  miners  entrenched  themselves 
in  a  stockade  and  defied  the  government.  On  November  30,  1854, 
the  stockade  was  taken  by  assault.  Thirty  miners  were  killed  and 
120  captured,  but  such  was  the  state  of  public  sentiment  in  the 
colony  that  all  were  acquitted  in  spite  of  conclusive  evidence  of 
guilt. 

In  1885  the  government  was  forced  to  abolish  the  license 
fee,  replacing  it  with  an  export  duty  on  gold.  In  lieu  of  the  fee 
a  miner  was  now  required  to  pay  i/.  for  a  "  miner's  right "  or  per- 
mission to  occupy  for  mining  purposes  a  specific  piece  of  Crown 
land  for  one  year.  The  new  system  was  successful.  It  produced  a 
sufficient  revenue  and  restored  order  in  the  gold  fields,  where  a  new 
system  of  local  government  adapted  to  local  needs  was  inaugurated. 

Among  other  evils  the  discovery  of  gold  brought  an  alarming 
immigration  of  Chinese,  thereby  beginning  a  troublesome  race 
problem  in  Australia.  The  drain  of  population  from  the  lesser 
colonies,  especially  Tasmania,  was  at  first  alarming,  but  after  a 
time  the  prosperity  of  Victoria  was  diffused  among  all  the  other 
colonies,  which  found  there  a  ready  market  for  their  products. 
In  the  decade  ending  in  1861  the  population  of  all  the  colonies, 
fcxckiding  New  Zealand,  rose  from  479,199  to  1,167,481;  of  Vic- 
toria from  76.162  to  541.800;  of  New  South  Wales  from  265,503 
^'^'  358.378-     Victoria  long  remained  the  most  populous,  wealthy. 


THESOUTHSEA  203 

1800-1910 

and  enteqjrising-  of  all  the  colonies,  but  in  1899  New  South  Wales 
had  regained  her  old  superiority  in  population  and  trade. 

The  union  of  the  Australian  colonies  in  a  confederation  fol- 
lowed the  attainment  of  complete  self-government  by  them  after 
a  delay  of  nearly  half  a  century.  The  idea  was  suggested  in  Eng- 
land as  early  as  1850,  and  occasional  colonial  conferences  upon  the 
subject  were  held  without  result  until  1880.  In  that  year  there 
was  an  important  conference  of  all  the  colonies,  including  New 
Zealand,  at  Sydney,  caused  by  the  claims  made  by  France  to  the 
island  group  known  as  the  New  Hebrides.  The  first  step  toward 
federation  was  now  taken.  A  federal  council  was  established  with 
legislative  power  over  a  few  subjects  of  general  interest,  such  as 
fisheries,  intercolonial  legal  process,  and  the  influx  of  criminals. 
This  scheme  was  enacted  by  the  British  Parliament  August  14. 
1885,  and  adopted  by  all  the  colonies  except  New  South  Wales  and 
New  Zealand.  The  first  meeting  of  the  council  took  place  Feb- 
ruary 5,  1886.  Meetings  were  held  in  1888,  1889,  and  in  e\ery  odd 
numbered  year  from  1891  to  1899.  The  colony  of  Fiji,  which  had 
been  recently  established  in  the  island  group  of  that  name,  was 
entitled  to  representation  in  the  council,  but  was  in  fact  unrepre- 
sented after  the  first  meeting.  The  council  passed  laws,  but  had 
no  power  in  enforcing  them,  and  was  thus  a  body  not  unlike  the 
American  Congress  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  but  with 
much  less  legislative  power.  The  next  step  was  taken  in  18S7, 
when  a  colonial  conference  was  held  in  London,  at  which  all  the 
British  possessions  were  represented  and  an  agreement  for  de- 
fensive measures  was  adopted.  The  colonies  were  to  contribute 
126,000/.  a  year,  apportioned  among  them  according  to  popukition, 
for  the  support  of  an  auxiliary  fleet  on  the  Australian  station. 
This  agreement  was  ratified  by  the  five  continental  colonies,  Tas- 
mania, and  New  Zealand,  and  on  September  5,  1891,  the  fleet 
arrived  at  Sydney.  The  Londi.n  confe^'cnce  had  suggested  the 
appointment  of  an  imperial  commissioner  oti  the  land  defenses  of 
Australia.  His  report  was  made  on  October  9,  1889,  and  ^-hortly 
thereafter  Sir  Henry  Parkcs  of  New  South  Wales  suggested  to  the 
colony  of  Victoria  a  convention  to  frame  a  federal  constitution. 
This  resulted  in  a  conference  at  Melbourne  February  6,  1890, 
composed  of  the  federal  council  with  delegates  from  New  South 
Wales  and  New  Zealand,  which  resolved  that  a  federal  govern- 
ment  having   executive    and    legislative   pov/ers    should    be    estali- 


204  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

Hshed,  embracing  the  remoter  Australasian  colonies  on  terms  to 
be  agreed  upon  later.  The  colonial  legislatures  were  to  appoint 
delegates  to  a  federal  convention  for  this  purpose.  On  Marcli 
2,  189 1,  this  convention  met  at  Sydney,  the  five  continental 
colonies,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand  being  represented.  Sir 
Henry  Parkes  introduced  resolutions  looking  to  the  preservation 
of  state  rights,  the  establishment  of  interstate  free  trade,  a  federal 
customs  tariff,  and  federal  defense.  These  objects  were  to  be 
attained  by  a  government  consisting  of  a  senate  and  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, a  supreme  court,  a  governor  general,  and  a  ministry  re- 
sponsible to  the  house  of  representatives.  On  March  31,  1891, 
the  constitutional  committee  reported  a  draft  constitution,  which 
was  afterward  adopted  by  the  convention  with  few  changes  and 
referred  to  the  parliaments  of  the  several  colonies,  to  be  submitted 
to  the  people  of  each  for  approval,  and  to  be  put  in  force  by  the 
home  government  when  ratified  by  three  colonies.  The  convention 
adjourned  April  9,  1891.  The  chief  obstacles  to  agreement  in  the 
convention  had  been  the  rivalry  of  the  big  and  little  states,  the 
opposition  of  the  high  tariff  and  low  tariff  states,  and  the  question 
of  the  proper  methods  for  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  revenue 
by  the  proposed  commonwealth  among  the  states.  The  populous 
colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  were  opposed  to  equal 
representation  in  the  .senate,  or,  if  that  were  conceded,  they  wished 
to  diminish  the  power  of  the  senate  over  bills  appropriating  money. 
The  free  trade  colony  of  New  South  Wales  was  apprehensive  that 
the  new  government  would  impose  upon  it  the  protective  system 
of  t1ie  colony  of  Victoria,  and  would  collect  from  it  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  federal  revenue  than  would  be  returned  under  the  dis- 
tribution plan.  The  proposed  constitution  was  debated  without 
exciting  very  much  interest  in  the  colonial  parliaments,  and  finally 
put  aside  without  action  in  Xew  South  Wales.  Tlie  apprehensions 
of  the  free-traders  and  the  representatives  of  the  labor  party  and 
the  general  jealousy  of  the  smaller  colonies  were  fatal  to  tlie 
sclieme. 

In  1893  the  cause  of  federation  received  new  impetus  in  the 
formation  of  the  ]'>(lcration  League,  with  a  systematic  popular 
propaganda  independent  of  the  governments  of  the  several  col- 
onics. Tins  re.^ukcd  in  a  conference  of  colonial  premiers  at  Ilobart 
in  Tasmania,  January  29.  1895,  wliere  tlie  plan  jiroposed  by  the 
hederatifiii  League  was  adopted.     This  was  a   federal  convention 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  5^05 

180O  1910 

composed  of  delegates  elected  directly  by  the  people  of  each  colony, 
the  constitution  planned  thereby  to  be  submitted  to  the  people  of 
each  colony  for  ratification.  In  accordance  with  the  agreement  of 
the  premiers,  legislation  to  this  effect  was  enacted  in  each  colony, 
save  that  in  Western  Australia  the  delegates  were  to  be  chosen  by 
the  parliament.  Tlie  first  session  of  the  convention  began  March 
2,  1897,  at  Adelaide  in  South  Australia.  Preliminary  resolutions 
like  those  of  the  convention  of  1891  were  voted  and  committees 
duly  appointed.  Tlie  draft  of  the  constitution  followed  very 
closely  that  of  1891.  The  convention  adjourned  April  22  to  meet 
again  September  2,  and  in  accordance  with  the  plan  the  draft  con- 
stitution was  in  the  meantime  submitted  to  tlie  legislatures  of  the 
several  colonies  for  suggestions.  In  all  286  amendments  were  thus 
suggested.  For  the  most  part  they  were  concerned  with  the  re- 
spective powers  of  the  big  and  little  states,  the  distribution  of  fed- 
eral revenue  among  the  states,  the  control  of  the  great  rivers  for 
navigation  and  irrigation,  the  control  of  the  state  railroads  to 
prevent  discrimination,  the  power  of  the  senate  over  money  bills, 
and  schemes  to  prevent  a  deadlock  between  the  senate  and  the 
house  of  representatives.  The  convention  held  its  second  session 
in  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  from  September  2  to  September 
24,  1897,  and  adjourned  to  meet  again  at  Melbourne.  Tlie  sug- 
gested amendments  were  considered,  but  compar;itively  few 
changes  were  made  in  the  original  draft.  In  the  meantime  the 
anti-federalists  of  New  South  Wales  became  alarmed  at  the  prog- 
ress the  movement  was  making,  and  passed  an  act  requiring  at  least 
80,000  affirmative  votes  for  the  ratification  of  the  constitution  by 
that  colony.  Tlie  ^^lelbourne  session  of  the  convention  extended 
from  January  jo  to  March  17,  1898.  The  matter  exciting  the 
greatest  controversy  was  the  control  of  tlie  great  river  system. 
New  South  Wales  hatl  embarked  in  irrigation  etiterprises  on  the 
upper  ccnirse  of  the  ri\ers.  while  South  Australia  was  interested 
in  navigation  on  the  kiwer  courses.  Another  subject  of  contro- 
versy was  that  of  railway  rates.  Much  of  the  territory  of  New 
South  Wales  was  nearer  to  Melb(nn-ne.  the  port  of  Victoria,  than 
to  Sydney.  The  state  railways  of  both  colonies  competed  for  the 
traffic  of  this  region,  and  there  v.as  great  jealousy  between  them  on 
this  account.  Victoria  wanted  <liscrimination  in  rates  prohibited 
so  that  the  traftic  would  seek  its  natural  outlet  at  Melbourne.  To 
New  Sonth  Wales  thi-^  seemed  to  be  a  sacrifice  of  the  interests  of 


906  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

that  colony  to  those  of  Victoria,  but  at  last  it  was  agreed  that  an 
interstate  commission  should  have  power  to  prevent  undue  dis- 
crimination in  rates.  There  was  now  jealousy  over  the  question 
of  the  federal  capital.  New  South  Wales  wanted  it  fixed  at  Syd- 
ney, and  Victoria  preferred  Melbourne.  It  was  finally  provided 
that  the  capital  should  be  in  federal  territory.  On  account  of  the 
peculiar  difficulties  of  Western  Australia  it  was  agreed  that  its 
(hities  on  goods  from  other  colonies  should  be  temporarily  main- 
tained though  gradually  lessened  and  finally  abolished  at  the  end 
oi  five  3'ears. 

The  Constitution  w^as  now  referred  to  the  people  of  the  several 
colonies.  The  only  formidable  opposition  was  in  New  South 
Wales.  After  a  campaign  of  eleven  weeks  the  vote  was  taken  in 
nil  the  participating  colonies  except  Western  Australia,  and  showed 
a  majority  for  ratification  in  each,  but  in  New  South  Wales  the 
affirmative  vote  fell  8405  short  of  the  prescribed  80,000.  The 
federation  movement  seemed  to  have  met  a  second  decisive  defeat, 
but  its  advocates  did  not  despair.  The  positive  majority  in  New 
South  Wales  was  encouraging  and  a  general  parliamentary  elec- 
tion in  that  colony  gave  additional  encouragement.  The  New 
South  Wales  ministry  now  proposed  certain  amendments,  and  it 
was  agreed  at  a  meeting  of  the  premiers  of  six  colonies  at  Mel- 
bourne, where  for  the  first  time  Queensland  was  represented,  that 
the  amendments  should  be  submitted  to  the  parliaments  of  each 
colony  for  reference  to  a  popular  vote.  This  plan  was  rejected  by 
the  upper  house  of  New  South  Wales,  whereupon  the  ministry 
appointed  twelve  new  members  in  the  House  and  thus  passed  the 
bill.  After  a  campaign  of  eight  weeks  the  vote  was  taken  in  New 
South  Wales  June  20,  1899,  resulting  as  follows:  for  the  Constitu- 
tion 107,420,  against  82.741.  South  7\ustralia  ratified  April  29, 
65,990  to  17,053:  Victoria  on  July  27,  152.653  to  9805;  Tas- 
mania on  the  same  day  by  13,437  to  791 ;  Queensland  on  Septem- 
ber 2,  38.488  to  30.996.  Western  Australia  took  no  action  at  this 
time.  In  the  five  colonies  which  had  ratified  the  Constitution  an 
address  to  the  queen  was  prepared,  petitioning  for  its  enactment  by 
the  British  Parliament. 

A  conference  of  colonial  delegates  in  London  was  the  next 
step.  Here  Western  Australia  and  even  New  Zealand  were  repre- 
sented, though  they  had  not  ratified  the  Constitution,  nor  had  New 
Zealand  had  any  share  in  the  movement.     The  imperial  govern- 


THESOUTHSEA  207 

18001910 

ment  raised  many  objections  to  the  Constitution  as  planned,  and 
amendments  were  suggested  by  Western  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land. The  colonial  secretary,  Joseph  Chamberlain,  abandoned 
most  of  his  objections,  but  suggested  certain  amendments  by  a 
telegram  to  a  conference  of  colonial  premiers  at  Melbourne,  who 
replied  that  they  had  no  authority  to  accept  amendments.  The 
imperial  government  then  yielded  all  points  except  the  question  of 
appeal  to  the  privy  council  in  England.  The  Constitution  as 
planned  had  forbidden  appeals  on  purely  Australian  questions,  and 
had  empowered  the  federal  parliament  to  regulate  or  prohibit  ap- 
peals on  all  questions.  It  was  now  provided  that  as  to  Australian 
questions  there  could  be  no  appeal  without  leave  of  the  Australian 
High  Court,  and  that  legislation  affecting  the  right  of  appeal  in 
other  cases  should  be  reserved  by  the  governor  general  for  the  sov- 
ereign's assent.  Thus  modified,  the  Constitution  was  enacted  by  the 
British  Parliament  in  the  Australian  Constitution  Act,  1900, 
which  received  the  queen's  assent  on  July  9  of  that  year.  On  July 
31,  Western  Australia  ratified  tiie  Constitution  by  a  vote  of  44,800 
to  19,691.  The  queen's  proclamation  of  September  17  fixed  Janu- 
ary I,  1 901,  for  the  inauguration  of  the  new  government,  and  on 
September  21  the  Earl  of  Hopetoun  was  commissioned  as  the 
first  governor  general  of  the  commonwealth. 

In  its  general  features  the  Constitution  resembles  that  of  the 
United  States  except  that  the  executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of 
ministers  responsible  to  the  lower  house  of  parliament  as  in 
England.  The  title  of  the  federation  is  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia,  and  the  several  colonies  are  called  states.  Legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  federal  parliament,  consisting  of  the  king, 
represented  by  the  governor  general,  a  senate,  and  a  house  of 
representatives.  There  are  six  senators  from  each  of  tlie  six 
original  states,  elected  by  t/ie  people  of  the  states  for  the  term 
of  six  years,  subject  to  dissolution  by  the  governor  general 
under  certain  circumstances.  Ordinarily  one-half  of  the  senators 
are  elected  every  three  years.  The  members  of  the  house  of 
representatives  are  elected  by  the  people  in  each  state  for  a  term 
not  exceeding  three  years,  but  the  house  may  be  dissolved  or  the 
parliament  prorogued  at  any  time  by  the  governor  general.  ^lem- 
bers  of  the  house  of  representatives  are  apportioned  among  the 
several  states  according  to  populatitin.  excluding  all  persons  of  any 
race  disqualified  by  state  law    fiHiin   \-oting.      Senators  and  repre- 


208  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

sentatives  are  paid  by  the  commonwealth.  The  parliament  has 
wide-reaching-  legislative  powers,  extending  to  many  matters  not 
expressly  within  the  legislative  power  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States.  Among  these  are :  bounties  on  production  and  ex- 
port of  goods;  banking,  except  state  banking  within  the  limits  of 
the  state ;  the  incorporation  of  banks  and  the  issue  of  paper  money ; 
insurance;  except  state  insurance  within  the  limits  of  the  state, 
weights  and  measures ;  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes , 
corporations ;  telegraphs  and  telephones ;  marriage  and  divorce ;  in- 
valid and  old  age  pensions;  races  for  whom  special  laws  may  be 
made,  except  the  aborigines ;  relations  w' ith  the  Pacific  Islands ;  ac- 
quisition of  state  railways  with  the  consent  of  the  state;  railway 
construction  in  any  state  on  the  same  terms;  industrial  conciliation 
and  arbitration ;  matters  specially  referred  to  the  federal  parlia- 
ment by  any  state  or  states  subject  to  the  consent  of  all  states  af- 
fected. The  senate  cannot  originate  or  amend  money  bills,  but 
may  suggest  amendments  therein  :  in  other  respects  the  two  houses 
have  equal  power,  but  if  the  senate  refuses  to  pass  a  house  measure 
or  amends  it  unacceptably  to  the  house  and  repeats  this  action  after 
three  months,  the  governor  general  may  dissolve  both  houses 
simultaneously;  if  the  deadlock  is  repeated  after  tlie  general  elec- 
tion, the  governor  general  may  convene  a  joint  session  of  both 
Iiouses,  wherein  a  majority  of  tlie  wliole  number  of  senators  and 
representatives  shall  be  necessary  to  pass  any  of  the  proposed 
amendments  or  the  original  measure.  The  governor  general  may 
return  any  measure  passed  by  the  parliament  and  suggest  amend- 
ments therein.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king,  and  is 
exercised  by  the  governor  general  with  the  advice  of  the  executive 
council,  which  is  composed  of  the  heads  of  the  executi\"e  depart- 
ments, who  are  the  king's  ministers  of  state  for  the  comn^ionwealth 
and  must  be  members  of  parliament.  The  judicial  power  is  vested 
in  a  High  Court  of  Australia  and  in  inferior  federal  or  other 
courts,  as  the  parliament  shall  determine.  Judges  of  the  federal 
courts  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  have  fixed  salaries 
and  are  appointed  by  the  governor  general  in  council.  Appeals 
to  tlie  I^ngli'^li  privy  council  from  the  high  court  as  to  the  consti- 
tutinnal  powers  of  the  commonwealth  or  of  any  state  cannot  be 
taken  without  leave  of  the  high  court.  Appeals  in  other  matters 
may  be  limited  l)y  parliament  witli  the  king's  assent.  An  interstate 
commission  is  to  execute  the  laws  of  tlie  cnnini' inwcalili  concern- 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  209 

1800-1910 

\ng  trade  and  commerce;  such  laws  may  extend  to  navigation, 
shipping,  and  state  railways,  but  must  not  give  a  preference  to  one 
state  over  another  nor  abridge  the  right  of  any  state  or  its  people  to 
the  reasonable  use  of  the  waters  of  rivers  for  conservation  or  irriga- 
tion ;  they  may  forbid  undue  discrimination  by  any  state  railways, 
having  due  regard  to  the  financial  responsibilities  incurred  in  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  such  railways. 

For  ten  years  the  commonwealth  shall  not  expend  more  than 
one-fourth  of  the  net  annual  revenue  from  duties  of  customs  and 
excise.  The  surplus  is  to  be  distributed  among  the  states.  For 
five  years  the  distribution  is  to  be  in  proportion  to  contribution  to 
the  fund,  thereafter  upon  a  fair  basis.  The  commonw'ealth  may 
grant  financial  aid  to  a  state  and  may  take  over  state  debts.  Powers 
not  delegated  by  the  Constitution  to  the  commonwealth,  nor  pro- 
hibited to  the  state,  are  re?ei*\-ed  to  the  states.  States  may  sur- 
render territory  to  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  commonwealth. 
New*  states  may  be  admitted  upon  such  terms,  including  representa- 
tion in  parliament,  as  the  parliament  thinks  fit.  Parliament  may 
make  laws  for  territory  surrendered  to  the  commonwealth  by  any 
state,  or  otherwise  acquired.  The  seat  of  government  shall  be  on 
federal  territory  within  the  state  of  Xew^  South  Wales,  but  distant 
at  least  one  hundred  miles  from  Sydney.  The  area  of  such  terri- 
tory shall  be  not  less  than  one  hundred  square  miles.  I'arliament 
i^  to  sit  at  Alelbournc  until  the  seat  of  government  is  establislicd. 
Anienihncnts  to  the  C'on^Liluti' ai  must  be  approxcd  by  an  absMlutc 
majority  of  cacli  house  of  parliament  and  ratified  by  a  majority  of 
the  electors  voting  thereon  in  a  majority  of  the  states  ruid  a  luajority 
of  the  electors  voting  thereon  in  all  the  states:  and  if  either  house 
twice  presses  a  proposed  amendment  at  an  interval  of  three  months 
or  more,  the  otlier  house  disagreeing  thereto,  tlie  governor  gen- 
eral may  submit  it  to  the  voters  for  ratification  in  like  manner. 
P)Ut  the  prop(Trtionate  representation  of  the  states  in  parliament, 
and  tlie  boundaries  of  tiie  stales  are  unalteral)le  without  the  con- 
sent of  a  majority  of  tlie  electors  \-oting  in  the  state  affected  by 
aiid  proposed  change  therein. 

The  commonwealth  was  proclaimed  at  Sydney  January  i, 
I  go  I,  and  the  parliament  proceeded  to  organize  the  new  govern- 
ment. /Vmong  its  acts  of  legislation  may  be  noted  the  organi- 
zation of  the  postal  and  telegra]ih  service:  prohibition  of  the 
imnfigration    <>[    Pacific    L-land    laborers:    general    rcstricti<jns    mh 


210  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

180O-1910 

immigration,  especially  of  non-European  races ;  imposition  of  excise 
duties  on  beer,  spirits,  starch,  sugar,  and  tobacco;  imposition  of 
import  duties  on  stimulants,  narcotics,  agricultural  products,  and 
a  long  list  of  manufactured  articles;  provisions  for  the  service  of 
process  and  for  the  recognition  of  state  laws  and  records. 

New  Zealand  has  now  but  little  to  do  with  Australia,  from 
which  it  is  over  a  thousand  miles  distant,  but  its  history  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  New  South  Wales,  to  which  colony  all  the 
settlements  in  these  parts  once  belonged.  Governor  Bourke  was 
succeeded  at  Sydney  in  1838  by  Governor  Gipps,  and  his  adminis- 
tration will  be  remembered  as  that  in  which  the  first  regular  set- 
tlements were  made  in  the  North  Island  of  the  New  Zealand  group. 
The  three  islands,  called  North  Island,  South  Island,  and  Stewart 
Island,  had  long  been  known  to  English  sailors.  The  natives, 
called  Maoris,  were  the  most  ferocious  race  of  cannibals  ever 
known,  but  far  superior  in  social  organization  and  in  character 
to  the  degraded  aborigines  of  Australia.  The  European  inter- 
course with  them  for  sixty  years  from  the  time  of  Cook  consisted 
merely  of  cruel  war,  carried  on  by  the  English  w'ith  the  object  of 
extirpating  so  odious  a  race,  and  by  the  natives  among  themselves 
and  against  the  English  for  revenge  and  plunder.  By  degrees, 
however,  the  Maoris  came  to  Port  Jackson,  and  the  chaplain,  Dr. 
Marsden,  always  made  friends  with  them  and  entertained  them  in 
his  house,  though  he  had  difficulty  in  restraining  them  from  slay- 
ing and  eating  each  other  under  his  very  eyes.  Marsden  afterward 
went  to  New  Zealand  to  labor  as  a  missionary.  In  18 14  a  famous 
warrior  among  them,  called  Hongi  Hika,  was  tempted  to  visit 
Sydney;  and  in  1820  he  came  to  England.  Though  a  savage,  he 
ever  afterward  protected  the  Europeans,  and  encouraged  the  mis- 
sionaries, and  after  his  time  the  communication  between  Sydney 
and  Xcw  Zealand  greatly  increased.  Many  Maoris  visited  Europe 
and  America;  the  whaling  stations  became  centers  of  traffic;  Euro- 
pean adventurers  and  outlaws  gradually  settled  among  the  natives 
beyond  the  ])r()tection  and  restraint  of  any  regular  government; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  introduction  of  firearms  by  Hongi  in  his 
wars  enabled  the  natives  to  exterminate  each  other  faster  than 
ever.  In  1814  missionaries  began  to  labor  among  the  natives,  and 
the  governor  ()f  New  South  Wales  appointed  magistrates  in  the 
islands  to  restrain  tlie  unruly  whites.  In  1817  an  English  statute 
crave  to  the  coloiu'al  courts  jurisdiction  of  crimes  committed  there 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  211 

1800-1910 

by  British  subjects.  Europeans  now  began  to  buy  land  from  the 
natives  for  growing  flax ;  but  the  first  batch  of  colonists,  who  were 
settled  by  the  government  in  1825,  to  forestall  the  French,  at  a 
cost  of  20,000/.,  were  so  scared  by  the  war-dances  of  the  natives 
that  they  fled  from  the  place.  In  1833  James  Busby  was  appointed 
resident  magistrate  with  very  limited  powers.  The  colonization  of 
the  island  was  afterward  entrusted  by  the  government  to  a  New 
Zealand  company  established  in  England  in  1839  on  the  Wake- 
field system,  and  chartered  in  184 1.  The  Wakefield  family  entered 
heartily  into  the  movement.  In  1839  Colonel  Wakefield's  party 
established  themselves  at  Port  Nicholson  on  the  strait  which  divides 
the  islands,  and  thus  was  begun  the  settlement  of  Wellington.  The 
government  was  thus  forced  to  act.  The  commission  of  Governor 
Gipps  was  amended  to  include  New  Zealand  and  he  immediately 
asserted  his  jurisdiction  there  by  proclamation,  and  announced  that 
the  government  would  not  recognize  any  claim  to  land  bought  from 
the  Maoris  without  the  sanction  of  the  Crown.  Captain  Hobson 
was  appointed  lieutenant  governor.  He  arrived  in  New  Zealand 
in  January,  1840,  and  found  a  motley  company  of  Europeans  at 
Kororareka.  This  settlement  was  soon  after  removed  to  the  beau- 
tiful bay  on  which  Auckland  now  stands.  The  situation  confront- 
ing the  new  governor  was  a  difficult  one.  The  IMaoris  did  not 
recognize  private  property  in  land,  but  had  very  clear  and  definite 
notions  of  tribal  ownership.  To  assume  that  the  title  to  the  soil 
was  vested  in  the  British  Crown,  as  had  been  done  in  Australia, 
would  have  provoked  a  race  war,  for  the  tribes  were  passionately 
attached  to  their  lands.  The  Maoris  distinguished  clearly  the  dif- 
ference between  sovereignty  and  ownership,  and  the  lieutenant 
governor  sought  to  procure  from  the  chiefs  a  recognition  of  Brit- 
ish sovereignty.  In  this  he  was  successful.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Waitangi.  signed  February  (\  1840,  the  chiefs  ceded  to  the  British 
Crown  all  their  rights  and  })owcrs  of  sovereignty  in  New  Zealand 
in  return  for  a  guaranty  to  the  chiefs  and  tribes  of  all  their  property 
rights  in  their  lands,  estates,  forests,  and  fislieries.  In  case  the 
tribes  wished  to  sell  their  lands  only  the  Crown  could  buy  them. 
The  jMarois  were  taken  under  the  protection  of  the  queen  and 
given  all  the  rights  of  British  subjects.  Governor  Hobson,  in 
1840,  proclaimed  British  sovereignty  over  the  whole  group.  In 
the  same  year  the  New  Zealand  Company's  settlers  at  Port  Nich- 
olson attempted  to  organize  an  independent  government  of  their 


212  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

own  and  claimed  lands  by  purchase  from  the  Maoris.  A  portion 
of  these  claims,  covering  110,000  acres,  was  allowed.  Several 
other  settlements  were  soon  afterward  formed,  the  chief  of  which 
were  Nelson,  in  the  South  Island,  and  New  Plymouth,  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  North  Island,  and  chiefly  colonized  by  Noncom- 
formists.  In  1841  the  three  islands  w^ere  erected  into  an  independ- 
ent colony,  with  Auckland  for  its  capital.  There  was  to  be  a 
legislative  council  appointed  by  the  Colonial  Office,  and  all  legis- 
lation must  be  proposed  by  the  governor  and  approved  by  the 
Colonial  Office.  On  February  12,  1841,  the  New  Zealand  Com- 
pany was  chartered  in  England  with  a  capital  of  300,000/.  It  was 
to  be  managed  by  a  court  ^  of  proprietors  and  a  court  of  directors  in 
England,  with  agents  and  local  boards  in  the  colony.  A  free  grant 
of  one  acre  was  promised  for  every  five  shillings  spent  in  coloniza- 
tion by  the  company.  Meanwhile  the  new  colonial  government 
was  inaugurated  and  the  legislative  council  passed  an  ordinance 
providing  for  a  commission  to  investigate  claims  to  Crown  lands. 
No  titles  were  to  be  allowed  until  approved  by  the  government, 
which  might,  however,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  commission, 
approve  purchases  previously  made  from  the  Maoris.  The  com- 
pany continued  to  buy  land  without  regard  to  the  ordinance.  The 
tribes  denounced  such  purchases  as  invalid.  Governor  Hobson's 
successor  yielded  to  the  company  and  a  race  w^ar  broke  out. 

Sir  George  Grey,  who  had  been  so  successful  in  South  Aus- 
tralia, was  in  1845  appointed  as  governor,  and  his  firmness  and 
wisdom  saved  the  colony  from  a  disastrous  w^ar.  After  setting 
in  order  the  disorganized  finances,  he  took  up  the  native  question. 
First  promising  to  abide  by  the  Treaty  of  Waitangi,  he  stopped 
the  sale  of  firearms  to  the  ^Maoris,  appointed  several  cliiefs  to 
office,  and  by  the  help  of  Maori  allies  crushed  the  resistance  of 
the  hostile  tribes.  Resident  magistrates  were  appointed  to  ad- 
minister justice  in  native  cases;  tlie  proceedings  of  the  former 
governor  ]:)ermitting  land  purchases  were  disallowed,  and  the 
occupation  of  land  under  a  ]\laori  title  made  punishable  by  fine. 
Instructi(Mis  from  England  less  favorable  to  the  Maoris  in  the  mat- 
ter of  their  lands  remained  unenforced  until  the  remonstrances  of 
the  governor,  the  chief  justice,  and  the  Bishop  of  New  Zealand 
caused  tliem  to  be  revoked.     In   1846  the  British  Parliament  en- 

^ 'I'he  word  "court"  was  used  in  the  same  sense  in  the  American  colonies 
and  still  >urvivcs  in  liie  name  ■"General  Court,"  borne  by  the  legislature  of 
.\la-^aclnisett-. 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  213 

1800-1910 

acted  an  elaborate  and  unsnitable  constitution  for  New  Zealand, 
whicli  Governor  Grey  declined  to  put  in  force.  His  remonstrance 
forced  its  repeal.  Tn  1848,  by  authority  of  an  Act  of  Parliament, 
the  great  South  Island,  where  there  were  but  few  ^Maoris,  was 
purchased  for  the  benctit  of  the  New  Zealand  Company. 

We  have  already  sketched  the  beginnings  of  four  of  the  prov- 
inces of  New  Zealand — Auckland.  Wellington,  Nelson,  and  New- 
Plymouth.  These  were  not  all  placed  in  the  best  situations,  and 
they  have  been  eclipsed  in  wealth  and  importance  by  some  that 
have  been  more  recently  formed.  All  these  settlements  were  formed 
under  the  direction  of  Wakefield,  and,  from  their  isolation,  their 
original  character  has  remained  impressed  upon  them  more  strongly 
than  upon  South  Australia.  Amcjug  Wakefield's  clever  devices 
was  a  notion,  borrow'ed  from  American  history,  of  sending  out 
bodies  of  colonists  of  t1ie  sjime  religious  persuasion  to  different 
parts.  Thus  he  had  loccitecl  a  number  ui  Nonconformists  at  New' 
Plymouth;  he  now  (1848)  shipped  oft  a  number  of  Scotch  Pres- 
byterians to  Otago  in  South  Island ;  and  he  advertised  a  colony 
of  Episcopalians  for  a  settlement  in  the  same  island  to  be  called 
Canterbury,  with  a  capital  town  to  be  called  Christchurch.  He 
sold  the  land  everywhere  as  high  as  he  could;  but  here  he  proposed 
to  buikl  and  endow  cathedrals  and  churches  out  of  the  purchase 
money,  ^vhich  was  iixed  as  high  as  3/.  an  acre,  k'or  this  colony 
he  obtained  a  special  charter  in  1850;  and  it  turned  out  more  of  a 
success  than  might  have  been  expecte<l.  though  the  expectations 
of  the  ct)lonists  have  not  been  completely  satisiicd.  In  1851  the 
New  Zealand  Company  was  dissoKed  and  tlie  Crown  empowered 
to  provide  for  the  go\'ernmcnt  of  its  si'ttlements.  There  were  now 
six  regular  colonies  on  the  ci)a-t  ot  Xew  Zealand,  and  the  Con- 
servati\e  r>ritish  Government  framed  a  I'cileral  constitution  for 
them  in  iS^j.  luich  was  to  Iku'c  its  provincial  institutions,  besides 
which  tlierc  was  to  be  a  nominated  legislati\"e  council  and  a  house 
(^f  representati\cs.  elected  by  peo[)le  possessing  a  property  {[ualifica- 
tion.  for  the  whole  colony.  Power  was  given  to  constitute  fresh 
provinces  as  tlie  p^pnlation  should  increase;  and  the  six  ])rovinces 
were  soon  increased  to  nine  by  the  addition  of  Ilawke's  Bay, 
formed  out  oi'  \\\c  old  pro\  ince  of  Wellington  in  1S5S,  Marlbor- 
ough, detached  t'r.  >ni  W-l.-i-n  in  1850,  and  Southland,  formerlv  part 
of  (Jtago,  whicii  \va.>  formed  in  18^)1.  only  to  be  reunited  to  Otago 
in  1870.     Its  place  \\a^  taken  by  Westland.  the  portion  of  Canter- 


214  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

bury  on  the  western  coast  cut  off  by  a  high  range  of  mountains. 
The  discovery  of  gold  there  in  1867  led  to  its  organization  as  a 
county,  and  in  1873  it  was  erected  into  a  province.  In  1859  the 
province  of  New  Plymouth  took  the  name  Taranaki.  But  the  Con- 
stitution of  1852  turned  out  to  be  a  great  blunder.  Difficulties 
arose  in  the  administration  of  the  provinces.  The  government  of 
tlie  provincial  councils  was  notoriously  costly  and  inefficient,  and 
was  becoming  unnecessary,  as  the  work  of  local  administration  was 
taken  up  by  municipal  corporations.  Moreover,  provincial  jeal- 
ousies diminished  as  means  of  intercommunication  were  improved. 
l"or  a  long  time  there  were  conflicts  of  opinion  between  the  Ultra- 
Provincialists,  who  wished  each  province  to  become  a  separate  col- 
ony, the  Separatists,  who  were  for  a  separate  colony  in  each 
island.  Auckland  being  the  capital  of  the  North,  and  Christchurch 
or  Dunedin,  of  the  South  Island,  and  the  Centralists,  who  wished 
tor  the  abolition  of  the  provincial  governments  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  counties,  as  in  England  and  America,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment remaining  at  Wellington,  whither  it  had  been  removed  from 
Auckland  in  1865.  "The  last  party  prevailed;  in  1875  ^^^^  provin- 
cial distinctions  were  abolished  by  the  colonial  legislature  and  the 
central  government  was  established,  exactly  as  had  been  recom- 
mended by  Roebuck  a  quarter  century  before.  The  New  Zealand 
Islands  are  now  divided  into  counties,  like  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  constitutional  development  of  New  Zealand  has  followed 
the  same  lines  as  that  of  the  Australian  colonies.  Government  by 
a  ministry  responsible  to  the  legislature  had  not  been  provided  for 
by  the  imperial  statute  of  1852.  Yet  this  system  was  established 
;ilmost  immediately.  Governor  Grey  left  the  islands  before  the 
new  Constitution  was  fully  in  force,  and  his  successor  was  con- 
fronted at  the  first  session  of  the  general  assembly  by  a  vote  de- 
manding responsible  government.  In  the  following  year  (July, 
1855)  the  home  government  yielded  and  the  new  system  was  put 
in  force  without  any  imperial  legislation.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of 
New  Zealand  constitutional  practice  that  cabinet  ministers  after 
their  appointment  need  not  stand  for  reelection  to  the  general  as- 
sembly. The  democratic  drift  has  been  as  strong  here  as  elsewhere 
in  Australasia.  The  tenure  of  members  of  the  legislative  council 
has  been  reduced  from  life  to  seven  years.  The  house  of  repre- 
sentatives are  elected  for  six  years.  The  governor  may  summon, 
prorogue,   and   dissolve  the   general   assembly,   and   the  executive 


THE     SOUTH     SEA  216 

1800-191O 

power  is  in  the  hands  of  eight  responsible  ministers.  Property 
qualifications  for  voting  and  for  membership  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives have  been  abolished,  and  the  suffrage  has  been  extended 
to  women.  The  Maoris  are  represented  in  the  general  assembly 
on  a  substantial  equality  with  the  whites.  The  control  of  native 
affairs  was  retained  by  the  imperial  government  until  1863,  though 
there  was  constant  pressure  by  the  general  assembly  against  this 
restriction  of  its  powers,  accompanied  by  repeated  attempts  on 
the  part  of  the  whites  to  purchase  land  from  individual  Maoris, 
without  the  sanction  of  the  tribe  affected.  This  led  to  hostilities 
in  i860,  and  Sir  George  Grey  was  again  appointed  governor.  He 
arrived  in  1861  and  recommended  that  native  affairs  be  handed 
over  to  the  Colonial  ministers,  which  was  accordingly  done.  The 
assembly  decreed  military  government  in  the  disaffected  districts 
and  the  confiscation  of  the  lands  of  the  hostile  tribes.  The  war 
dragged  on  until  1866.  It  was  renewed  in  1868  under  Grey's 
successor,  but  resistance  was  at  an  end  the  next  year.  In  spite  of 
the  confiscation  policy  the  Maoris  in  1871  still  held  nearly  three- 
quarters  of  the  area  in  the  North  Island.  In  the  great  South 
Island  their  holdings  had  always  been  small. 

New  Zealand  is  distant  1200  miles  from  the  Australian  con- 
tinent. It  extends  nearly  a  thousand  miles  from  north  to  south 
and  is  200  miles  across  at  its  broadest  part,  and  the  coast  line  is 
3000  miles  long,  with  many  good  harbors.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate except  in  the  semitropical  north.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well 
watered,  the  scenery  beautiful  and  inspiring,  the  natural  resources 
of  the  country  rich  and  varied.  The  growth  of  the  colony  has 
been  steady  without  the  artificial  stimulus  of  penal  settlements  or 
gold  fever.  The  settlers  have  been  for  the  most  part  middle-class 
people  of  moderate  property,  who  brought  their  families  w,\h  them 
to  the  new  land  and  thus  founded  a  stable  society  where  wealth 
has  been  widely  distributed  from  the  first.  The  population  in  1901 
was  815,862,  including  43.143  Maoris  and  2857  Chinese. 

New  Zealand,  and  the  Australian  colonies  in  a  less  degree, 
have  become  notable  in  late  years  for  the  application  of  state 
socialism  to  many  phases  of  industry.  State  ownership  and  opera- 
tion of  railways  and  telegraphs,  progressive  taxes  on  incomes, 
property,  and  inheritances,  restriction  upon  the  area  of  land  hold- 
ings, the  fixing  of  a  minimum  wage  by  law,  invalid  and  old-age 
pensions,    courts    of    industrial    conciliation    and    arbitration,    arc 


J216  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

some  of  the  measures  culopted.  This  movement  has  provoked  tlie 
adverse  criticism  of  consen'ative  economists,  who  point  to  the 
heavy  increase  of  government  expenditure  and  debt,  the  small  im- 
migration and  the  withdrawal  of  English  capital  as  its  direct  effects. 
The  financial  crisis  of  1893  was  a  severe  check  to  industrial  prog- 
ress in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  form  a  final 
judgment  upon  this  policy  as  yet.  Its  advocates  attribute  existing 
financial  and  economic  evils  to  the  crisis  rather  than  to  the  meas- 
ures in  Cjuestion.  and  point  to  reviving  prosperity  in  proof.  That 
the  experiment  should  have  been  tried  by  Anglo-Saxons,  a  race 
devoted  to  individual  liberty,  is  itself  an  instructive  fact. 

The  success  of  the  British  colonization  of  Australasia  is  aston- 
ishing. As  a  piece  of  nation  building,  oversea  history  shows  no 
parallel.  It  is  a  striking  demonstration  of  the  colonizing  capacity 
of  the  race.  The  mistakes  committed  by  the  English  in  North 
America  have  been  avoided  here,  and  progress  has  been  corre- 
spondingly steady  and  rapid,  though  circumstances  were  less  fav- 
orable save  in  two  respects — the  absence  of  a  strong  and  warlike 
native  population  and  of  the  competition  of  any  European  rival. 

The  Australian  nation  begins  its  career  with  abundant  nat- 
ural resources  and  accumulated  wealth ;  with  a  population  of  more 
than  four  millions,  singularly  free  from  non-European  and  even 
non-British  elements,  confident  in  their  strength,  attached  to  the 
British  Empire,  and  jealously  regarding  the  colonial  enterprises  of 
other  European  races  in  the  Pacific.  Their  kinsmen  in  New  Zea- 
land, nearly  a  million  strong,  share  their  confidence  and  national 
sentiment  and  will  probably  enter  the  new  union.  Let  us  cast  our 
eyes  over  the  map  of  Australia,  beginning  with  the  eastern  shore. 
Traveling  south  from  the  tropical  clime  of  North  Queensland  we 
shall  pass  by  a  line  of  coast  nearly  three  thousand  miles  long.  As 
tlie  climate  becomes  more  temperate  we  gradually  find  the  coast 
occupied  right  up  to  the  distant  mountain  ranges,  and  for  many 
hundreds  of  miles  beyond  them,  by  English  colonists,  living  under 
a  free  local  government  of  their  own,  and  divided  into  four  state 
governments,  having  their  seats  at  Brisbane,  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
and  Adelaide.  All  these  ports,  and  several  others,  are  connected 
by  rail\va}'s  with  the  uplands  beyond  the  mountains.  Opposite 
Victoria  lies  tlie  Island  of  Tasmania,  forming  a  fifth  state.  The 
sixth  is  Western  Australia,  on  the  far  distant  western  coast.  All 
are  now  united  in  a  great  federal  commonwealth.    The  great  south- 


THESOUTHSEA  217 

1800-1910 

eastern  part  of  Australia  is  the  best  portion  of  the  island,  for  most 
of  the  central  and  western  parts  consist  of  sandy  and  stony  deserts 
and  salt  marshes.  The  further  growth  of  the  Australian  settle- 
ments must  clearly  not  be  looked  for  in  that  direction,  though  it 
leads  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  to  Europe.  The  course  of 
colonization,  in  fact,  has  now  reached  its  tropic  or  turning-point. 
Australia  really  faces  round  from  Europe  to  meet  the  kindred 
civilization  of  America  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  trade  of  the  In- 
dian Archipelago  and  China  on  the  other.  It  is  in  the  direction  of 
America  that  the  colony  of  New  Zealand  has  been  formed ;  and  it 
seems  likely  that  from  America  on  the  one  side  and  from  Australia 
on  the  other,  colonists  will  go  on  settling  in  many  of  the  nutuber- 
less  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  An  important  step  in  this  direc- 
tion was  taken  in  1874  by  the  British  Government.  Acting  on  the 
representations  of  the  Australians,  they  took  possession  in  that 
year  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  more  than  two  hundred  in  number,  where 
many  sugar  and  cotton  planters  had  already  settled.  The  way  for 
colonization  had  already  been  prepared  by  Christian  missionaries, 
both  from  America  and  from  Europe;  and  it  is  impossible  to  say 
how  far  the  movement  may  have  extended  in  another  century, 
when  the  wealth  and  population  of  America  and  Australia  have 
become  better  developed  and  consolitlatcd.  Northward  the  com- 
munication with  the  Indian  Ocean  has  been  begun  by  the  Adelaide 
telegrapli,  and  this  will  in  time  be  followed  by  a  railway.  Settle- 
ments have  been  made  on  the  northern  shore,  and  the  British  Gov- 
ernment has  taken  possession  of  the  adjoining  parts  of  the  vast 
island  of  New  Guinea  with  an  area  nearly  half  as  great  as  France 
and  a  population  of  350,000.  This  dependency  is  administered  by 
the  commonwealth.  Pacific  colonization  is  apparently  the  next 
phase  of  colonial  enterprise.  The  richness  of  the  soil  of  the  count- 
less Indian  and  Pacific  islands,  the  facilities  for  government  and 
for  intercommunication  afforded  by  their  position,  the  native  labor 
with  which  tlic}-  abound,  and  more  than  all,  the  immense  increase 
during  the  last  few  years  of  ocean  navigation  by  large  steamships. 
are  now  attracting  to  them  the  attention  of  the  world.  It  seems 
likely  that  the  great  world  of  the  Pacific,  including  tlie  shores  of 
China,  Japan,  Australia,  and  America,  as  well  as  the  islands  in  its 
bosom,  may  one  day  vie  with  the  world  that  is  washed  bv  the 
Atlantic  in  prosperity  and  civilization.  If  this  should  ever  come 
to  pass,  men  will  then  say  that  the  circle  of  history  is  complete. 


Chapter  XIII 

SOUTH    AFRICA.     1800-1910 

WE  have  seen  how  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  formed 
their  settlement  at  the  Cape,  in  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  as  a  convenient  halting  place  for  their 
vessels,  such  as  the  English  Company  had  at  the  Island  of  St. 
Helena.  The  history  of  this  Dutch  settlement  would  be  as  unim- 
portant as  that  of  Mombaza  or  Melinda,  but  for  the  fact  that  many 
poor  Dutchmen  settled  there  and  cultivated  the  soil,  as  English- 
men had  already  done  in  North  America.  As  is  usual  in  a  new 
country,  the  boers,  or  farmers,  suffered  great  hardships.  Some- 
times they  lived  on  the  flesh  of  penguins  and  monkeys,  and  for 
stealing  a  cabbage  a  man  was  sentenced  to  three  years'  penal  serv- 
itude. But  they  throve  better  in  course  of  time ;  their  cattle  mul- 
tiplied, they  brought  negroes  from  Guinea  and  Malays  from  Java, 
and  they  made  slaves  of  the  native  Hottentots,  After  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  many  French  Protestants  came  and 
settled  near  the  town  of  Stellenbosch ;  they  brought  w^ith  them  the 
vine,  and  in  a  few  years  the  vineyards  of  Constantia  had  be- 
come famous  even  in  Europe.  The  traffic  between  Europe  and 
India  brought  to  the  Cape  many  of  the  waifs  and  strays  of  both, 
and  hence  the  place  was  early  noted  for  its  poor  and  mixed  popula- 
tion. Otherwise  the  colony  attracted  little  notice.  It  was  tyran- 
nically governed  by  the  officials  of  the  East  India  Company,  and 
tlie  slaves  and  Hottentots  were  cruelly  treated  by  the  settlers. 
Cape  Town  grew  in  proportion  to  the  extension  of  the  farms,  just 
as  the  towns  of  Australia  have  since  done.  The  farmers,  as  they 
prospered,  got  tired  of  living  up  the  country,  and  came  down  to 
the  town,  leaving  the  management  of  their  farms  to  their  slaves. 
Some  settlers  lived  by  fishing  and  petty  trading,  and  others  by  let- 
ting out  slaves  to  work  for  hire.  But  there  was  no  getting  rich  on 
a  large  scale,  for  the  Company  limited  the  size  of  the  farms,  and 
kept  most  of  the  trade  in  its  own  hands.  The  method  under  which 
the  holdings  of  the  Boers  in   South  Africa  were  formed  is  both 

218 


SOUTH     AFRICA 


219 


1800-1910 


interesting  in  itself  as  tiie  earliest  example  of  modern  agricultural 
colonization  as  a  regular  system,  and  important  for  understanding 
subsequent  South  African  history.  The  Boers  at  first  never  thought 
of  anything  like  absol-.'tc  ownership  of  the  soil.  The  Company 
allowed  each  Boer  to  choose  his  own  place  for  settling,  and  to  oc- 
cupy a  large  space  of  land,  which  from  its  being  held  on  loan  or 


sufferance  was  called  his  ''  loan-iilacc."  A  central  point  was  fixed, 
and  all  ihc  land  wilinji  hall  an  liour'^  walk  in  any  direction  from 
it  was  inch'.dcd  in  the  lo:in-place.  The  settler  received  no  title- 
deeds  willi  his  land,  but  on!}'  a  vv'rittcn  j)crniis>ion  to  occupv ;  and 
of  course  he  conil  not  be  expected  to  make  any  permanent  im- 
provements on  a  place  from  which  he  could  be  at  any  moment 
ejected  by  some  morr  favored  person.  To  induce  the  Boers  to 
build  houses  and  cnUivatc  the  soil,  about  \ 20  acres  of  land,  selected 
bv  thcmsclvc-^  nnvwlicrc  within   their  Innn-nl-ice-;,  were  p^rpnti^]   .-)< 


220  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

freeholds  to  each.  Here  the  Boer  built  his  house,  and  planted  his 
vines  and  his  orange  trees.  His  sons  also  built  their  houses  around 
in  the  same  way,  so  that  each  loan-place  gradually  became  a  family 
colony  in  itself,  with  from  six  to  twenty  thousand  acres  of  pasture 
land  around,  on  which  the  flocks  and  herds  multiplied  with  little 
trouble.  This  system  was  afterward  carried  out  in  places  where  no 
official  eye  had  penetrated ;  and  when  the  English  Government 
afterward  converted  this  tenure  by  sufferance  into  freehold  prop- 
erty, there  was  much  difficulty  in  settling  conflicting  claims  where 
no  accurate  boundar}'  had  been  fixed.  The  farming  was  of  the 
poorest  and  most  primitive  kind ;  and  as  all  the  work  was  done  by 
slaves,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  progress  of  the  colony  was  slow. 
Janssens,  the  last  of  the  Dutch  governors,  replied  to  a  proposal  for 
a  new  settlement  in  the  place  by  saying  that  he  did  not  see  how  any 
more  people  could  subsist  there,  and  that  he  contemplated  the  actual 
increase  of  population  with  alarm,  not  knowing  where  the  children 
of  the  next  generation  would  find  bread  to  eat.  At  this  time,  after 
an  existence  of  a  century  and  a  half,  the  colony  contained  about 
20,ooo  free  people.  Since  coming  into  the  possession  of  England 
the  number  increased.  In  1904  there  were  in  Cape  Colony  alone 
575,102  whites  and  1,829,776  blacks.  In  Governor  Janssens's  time 
some  loads  of  wool,  which  had  been  brought  down  for  export, 
found  no  buyer,  and  the  wool  was  thrown  to  the  winds  upon  the 
beach.  The  export  of  the  same  article  from  South  Africa  now 
amounts  to  fifteen  million  dollars.^ 

Such  were  the  consequences  of  the  narrow  and  tyrannical  gov- 
ernment of  the  Company.  The  Dutch  are  a  republican  people,  and 
it  was  not  likely  that  the  colonists  would  endure  it  longer  than  they 
could  help.  The  revolt  of  the  English  colonists  in  America,  and 
events  in  France,  were  enough  to  show  them  the  way :  but  the 
change  was  precipitated  by  the  revolutionary  disturbances  which 
distracted  Holland  about  the  same  time.  The  Company  had  long 
been  in  a  decaying  condition:  and  when  the  French  conquered  Hol- 
land in  1795.  it  was  abolished,  its  debts  and  possessions  becoming 
those  of  the  nation.  The  Cape  Colony,  exclusive  of  Cape  Town, 
was  divided  into  three  provinces.  Cape  Town  enjoyed  a  hateful 
official  predominance;  and  the  inhabitants  of  two  of  the  other  prov- 
inces now   declared   themselves   independent,   expelled  the  govern - 

^  The  value  of  -luop  ;ui(l  poat>'  wciol  inifiortrfi  into  Great  Britain  from  Cape 
Colony   alone   in    i')o_^   \\h>   £.^.0,^0.'j,^6. 


S  O  U  T  ir     A  F  R  I  C  A  221 

1800-191O 

meiit  officials  and  proclaimed  a  republic  at  Swellendam.  The  Eng-- 
lish  Government  saw  in  this  incident  nothing  but  an  effect  of  French 
revolutionary  principles ;  the  Cape  was  now  an  important  naval 
station,  and  they  took  possession  of  the  whole  colony  on  behalf  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  been  driven  from  Holland.  This 
British  protectorate  over  the  colony  lasted  until  the  Peace  of 
Amiens,  when  it  was  evacuated  and  restored  to  Holland.  Upon  the 
war  breaking  out  again,  the  English  again  took  possession  of  the 
Cape  and  since  1806  it  has  remained  in  their  possession,  having 
been  formally  ceded  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  181 5.  We  shall  see 
in  the  next  chapter  how  public  opinion  was  gradually  stirred  against 
the  slave-trade  and  slavery,  on  which,  however,  the  prosperity  of 
many  European  colonies  was  supposed  to  depend.  The  Cape  was 
one  of  these;  and  the  first  consequence  of  the  British  occupation 
was  the  abolition  of  this  trade — for  the  last  cargo  of  slaves  came 
to  Cape  Town  in  1807.  The  Dutch,  who  did  not  share  the  humane 
ideas  of  the  Englisli.  were  exasperated  at  this,  and  still  more  by  the 
laws  for  the  protection  of  tlie  Hottentots,  which  the  English  made 
and  rigorously  executed.  As  we  shall  presenth'  see,  they  were  after- 
ward still  more  offended  by  the  abolition  of  the  institution  of  slav- 
ery itself.  In  1815  some  of  tlie  Boers  attempted  a  rebellion,  in 
consequence  of  some  prosecutions  for  ill-using  the  Hottentots,  and 
in  this  they  were  lielped  l)y  some  neighboring  natives,  who  have 
from  time  to  time  proved  very  troublesome  to  the  English. 

These  were  the  Kaffirs,  a  tall  and  warlike  race,  in  no  way  re- 
.sembling  the  Hottentots.  They  have,  indeed,  some  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  an  Asiatic  people.  The  Dutch  had  fought  with  them 
many  years  before,  and  in  1780  had  succeeded  in  driving  them  be- 
yond the  Great  Fish  River.  But  they  often  came  back,  and  there 
was  no  little  difficulty  in  maintaining  this  river  as  the  boundary. 
They  dwelt  mc^stlv  to  the  cast  of  the  colony,  and  as  the  colonists 
approached  their  borders,  the  Kaffirs  stole  their  cattle;  and  this 
went  on  so  much  tliat  it  was  made  lawful  to  shoot  the  Kaffirs  when- 
ever they  were  taken  in  tlie  act  f)f  cattle-stealing.  The  colonists 
also  adopted  a  system  of  reprisals,  by  \\lfich  tliey  stole  the  cattle  of 
the  Kaffirs;  and  ever  since  181  i  there  have  been  from  time  to  time 
wars  between  them  and  the  Kaflirs.  and  sometimes  wars  on  a  con- 
siderable scale.  In  181 8.  for  instance,  luiglish  troops  to  the  num- 
ber of  three  or  four  thousand  entered  Kaffirland,  and  took  posses- 
session  of  a  larjjc  frontier  tract:  and  there  was  another  invasion 


22^  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

ten  years  afterward.  The  greatest  Kaffir  Vv^ar  broke  out  in  1835, 
when  10,000  fighting  men  invaded  the  colony,  sweeping  over  the 
Eastern  Province,  and  striking  a  panic  into  Cape  Town  itself.  The 
Kaffirs  are  naturally  cruel  and  superstitious;  one  of  their  chiefs, 
named  Chaka.  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  destroyed 
a  million  of  human  beings.  But  large  numbers  of  them  have  now 
been  civilized,  and  in  course  of  time  they  will  perhaps  settle  down 
peaceably  by  their  white  neighbors.  The  English  have  always  en- 
deavored to  treat  them  fairly  and  humanely,  and  to  make  the  Dutch 
do  the  same.  The  Dutch  Boer,  however,  cannot  understand  why 
this  should  be,  and  he  hates  the  English  for  coercing  him  into  it. 
The  Boers  all  over  South  Africa  have  the  same  characteristics. 
They  are  ignorant  and  grasping;  and  as  regards  the  Kaffirs  they 
have  a  doctrine  which  complete!}^  satisfies  themselves,  though  it 
does  not  satisfy  an}^  other  of  the  parties  concerned  in  the  question. 
They  are  stern  Calvinists,  and  hold  the  Bible  as  their  only  moral 
law.  When  the  English  remonstrate  with  them,  they  turn  to  the 
five  books  of  Moses,  and  point  to  the  passages  where  the  people  of 
Israel  are  commanded  to  go  in  and  possess  the  land,  and  to  drive 
out  the  Canaanites,  the  Hivites,  and  the  Jebusites.  "  Ye  shall 
utterly  drive  out  the  inhabitants  thereof.  Ye  shall  make  no  cove- 
nant with  them  nor  show  any  mercy  unto  them.  The  Lord  hath 
given  the  land  for  an  inheritance  to  you  and  to  your  children.''  In 
this  blind  stubbornness  have  the  Dutch  Boers  gone  on  to  this  day, 
forgetting  that  they  are  in  the  midst  of  a  land  which  is  far  from 
being  conquered  from  the  inhabitants,  who  are  a  numerous  and  war- 
like race,  and  gradually  learning  the  use  of  firearms.  Their  treat- 
ment of  the  natives  has  often  provoked  hostility  to  all  white  people; 
and  although  in  most  parts  of  South  Africa  the  natives  by  this  time 
fully  understand  tlie  difference  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch. 
it  is  probable  that  in  the  case  of  a  general  rising  against  the  Dutch 
tlie  English  settlers  would  be  seriously  endangered.  It  is  this,  be- 
sides motives  of  common  justice  and  humanity,  which  led  Eng- 
land, however  unwillingly,  to  keep  her  hand  upon  the  Dutch 
wherever  tliey  went. 

No  Colonizing  expedition  has  been  more  successful  than  that 
which  was  sent  out  by  the  English  Govennnent  in  1820.  Free  set- 
tlers had  already  been  emigrating  to  Xew  South  Wales;  and  after 
tlie  war  of  i8i8  it  appeared  to  the  government  that  a  settlement 
might  well  be  established  in  the  conquered  part  of  Kaffirland   if 


SOUTHAFRICA  223 

1800-1910 

people  could  be  sent  out  in  sufficient  numbers  to  protect  themselves. 
They  voted  50,000/.  to  send  out  5000  colonists,  and  in  1820  this 
party  landed  at  Port  Elizabeth  in  Algoa  Bay.  The  government 
transported  them  in  wagons  to  their  freehold  allotments  of  too 
acres  each,  and  supplied  them  with  rations  until  they  could  manage 
to  subsist  by  their  farming.  They  suffered  many  hardships,  but 
the  new  colony  steadily  prospered  and  extended;  in  1835  it  became 
a  separate  district  by  the  name  of  the  Eastern  Province.  Tlierc 
were  already  many  Dutch  settlers  in  the  Eastern  l^rovince;  indeed, 
the  old  Dutch  province  uf  Graaf-Reynet  was  incorporated  with 
it.  But  the  Eastern  Province  has  taken  a  character  so  different 
from  the  Western  as  to  illustrate  exactly  the  difference  between 
tlie  English  and  the  Dutch  settlers.  It  is  less  self-contained,  and 
more  enterprising. 

The  Cape  w-as  included  in  that  general  enfranchisement  of  all 
British  colonies  willing  to  accept  it,  which  took  place  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  For  nearly  thirty  years  after  the  con- 
quest the  colony  remained  under  military  rule;  but  this  ceased  in 
1835,  when  executive  and  legislative  councils  were  appointed.  lUit 
the  Dutcli,  a  nation  full  of  i)olitical  instincts,  had  always  been  dis- 
contented at  their  exclusion  from  political  rights,  and  the  new'  Eng- 
lish settlers  were  not  slow  to  take  up  this  feeling.  As  early  as  1841. 
the  ]^eople  petitioned  for  representative  government,  nnd  the  g^'V- 
ernor.  Sir  George  Napier,  warmly  supported  tlieir  request;  but  tlie 
Colonial  Office  found  difficulties  in  the  way,  both  as  to  the  exact 
measure  of  the  proposed  grant,  and  in  connection  with  tlie  scattered 
character  of  the  settlements,  and  the  remoteness  of  the  IL-istcrn 
Pnnince  from  the  scat  of  government.  An  incident  in  tlie  year 
1849  forced  on  the  measure.  Australia  had  now  closed  her  ports 
against  English  convict  ships,  and  Lord  Grey,  tlicn  CoU^nial  Secre- 
tary, determined  to  send  tlie  convicts  henceforth  to  the  Cape.  A 
shipload  of  Irisli  political  prisoners  actually  arrived  otY  Cape  Town; 
but  the  colonists  r(\sc  in  arms,  rmd  \vi)nld  not  allow  them  to  be- 
lauded. This  successful  resistance  encouraged  tlieni  to  repeat  their 
demands.  ;ind  at  length  in  1850  the  go\-ernt)r  was  em[)owere(l  to 
summon  a  constituent  council,  cis  in  Australia.  Tlie  constituent 
council  settled  the  new  form  of  governn.ient,  on  the  basis  cif  a  legis- 
kiti\-e  council  or  upper  house,  and  a  house  of  assembly,  both  elected 
by  persons  possessing  a  pi-oj)erty  ([ualitlcanon.  As  tlie  govenu)r  was 
n'>t  rcspon<il)le  to  his  ])arliamein.  thi-^  was  much  the  same  constitu- 


224  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

tion  as  Canada  enjoyed  up  to  the  year  1840.  The  first  Cape  parHa- 
ment  met  in  1854;  but  for  twenty  years  the  government  of  the  col- 
ony was  carried  on  chiefly  from  home,  and  with  indifferent  success. 
There  was  constant  poverty  and  commercial  depression;  the  col- 
ony seemed  incapable  of  progress,  and  had  even  to  raise  loans  to 
pay  its  current  expenses  of  government.  The  opening  of  the  Suez 
canal  in  1870  removed  much  of  the  traffic  which  formerly  passed 
by  the  Cape,  though  the  injury  to  the  colony  has  been  far  less 
than  was  anticipated.  But  the  Cape  now  became  of  far  less  im- 
portance as  a  station  on  the  way  to  India ;  and  the  defenses  of  this 
colony  could  not  longer  be  allowed  to  cost  the  mother  country 
300.000/.  a  year.  Graduall}^  it  came  to  be  seen  that  the  Cape  peo- 
ple ought  to  be  left  entirely  to  the  management  of  their  own  af- 
fairs, and  in  1872  this  half-and-half  state  of  things  ceased,  and  the 
colony  passed  into  the  hands  of  local  ministers  responsible  to  the 
assembly,  as  in  Canada  and  the  Australian  colonies.  This  measure 
was  forced  on  by  the  increasing  difficulties  with  the  natives  in  other 
states  of  South  Africa,  in  the  belief  that  it  would  be  followed  by 
these  states  in  some  way  or  other  joining  with  the  free  Cape  gov- 
ernment to  make  a  general  South  African  Confederation.  The 
territory  of  the  Cape  Colony  had  been  in  the  meantime  increased 
by  the  addition  of  some  territory  beyond  the  Eastern  Province. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  of  1835,  British  authority  was  extended 
over  a  considerable  tract  of  Kaffirland,  and  at  the  end  of  the  last 
Kaffir  war  in  1853  this  was  definitely  annexed  by  the  name  of  Brit- 
ish Kaffraria.  In  1865  British  Kaffraria  was  incorporated  with 
the  Eastern  Province,  and  authorized  to  send  representatives  to 
the  assembly  at  Cape  Town. 

The  continuance  of  the  English  policy  in  favor  of  the  natives 
led  to  n  great  migration  of  the  Dutch  Boers  from  the  Eastern  Prov- 
ince ill  1835  and  the  years  following.  Slavery  had  been  finally 
abolished  in  1834,  and  a  general  condemnation  was  soon  after- 
ward passed  by  the  British  Government  on  the  Kaffir  wars.  Thou- 
sands of  Dutch  settlers,  smarting  from  the  loss  of  their  Hottentut 
and  negro  slaves,  and  b^jev'mg  that  the  English  were  really  en- 
couraging the  Kaffiis  to  massacre  them,  now  abandoned  their 
farms,  placed  their  goods  and  their  families  in  their  ox-wagons, 
and  crossed  the  Orange  River  into  the  land  which  is  now  the 
Orange  River  Colony,  driving  their  herds  with  them.  Here  they 
wandered  about  for  some  time,  and  at  Icnafth  found  their  wav  over 


SOUTHAFRICA  225 

1600-1910 

the  Drakenberg  Mountains  into  the  district  of  Natal.  On  the 
Christmas  Day  of  the  memorable  year  1498,  when  Vasco  da  Gama 
had  rounded  the  Cape,  and  was  coasting  round  the  eastern  shore  on 
his  way  to  India,  he  came  upon  a  wide  bay  to  whose  picturesque 
shores  he  gave  the  name  of  Terra  do  Natal  (Christmas-land). 
When  the  Boers  entered  this  country  there  was  already  a  small 
English  settlement  at  Port  Durban,  on  the  bay.  It  had  been 
founded  by  an  English  captain  named  Gardiner;  and  he  named  it 
the  Republic  of  Victoria,  supposing  that  the  British  Government 
would  never  help  him  in  organizing  it.  The  English  at  the  coast 
were  ready  enough  to  welcome  the  Dutch  immigrants.  The  natives 
were  few  and  feeble :  after  being  under  the  tyranny  of  a  ferocious 
Kaffir  chief,  they  had  now  passed  into  a  state  of  vassalage  to  the 
Europeans  at  the  port.  But  shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  Boers, 
there  happened  an  immigration  of  100,000  warlike  blacks  from 
the  interior,  called  Zulus,  with  whom  the  Dutch  had  to  do  battle 
for  their  new  settlement.  They  beat  the  Zulus,  but  they  could  not 
prevent  them  from  settling  down  in  large  numbers  all  round  them. 
Fancying  themselves  now  independent  of  England,  they  elected  a 
Volksraad,  or  national  council,  and  proclaimed  the  Republic  of 
Natal;  but  the  English  forced  them  to  submit,  and  in  1843  Natal 
was  declared  a  British  colony.  The  English  protected  the  Zulus. 
and  many  of  the  Dutch  went  back  over  the  Drakenberg ;  but  in  a 
few  years  British  settlers  began  to  arrive,  and  tliere  are  now 
60,000  Europeans  in  the  colony.  In  1849  the  sugar  cane  was  in- 
troduced in  the  lowlands  near  the  coast:  and  many  thousands  of 
tons  are  now  made  here  every  year,  yielding  em])loyment  to  a  large 
number  of  the  natives,  as  well  as  to  Hindoo  coolies.  Natal  has 
valuable  mines  of  coal,  an  important  fact  when  we  consider  that 
great  quantities  of  coal  were  formerly  exported  from  England  to 
the  Cape,  and  that  all  South  Africa  is  rich  in  valuable  minerals. 
Besides  this.  Natal,  like  the  Cape,  exports  large  quantities  of  wool 
and  hides.  After  being  several  years  a  dependency  of  the  Caj)e 
government,  it  became  a  separate  colony  in  1856.  and  obtained 
responsible  government  in  1893.  The  first  decided  evidences  of 
progress  in  this  colony  date  from  the  years  1859  to  1863.  As  the 
land  is  extremely  fertile,  and  has  been  sold  very  cheap,  the  increase 
of  immigration  has  been  steady:  and  although  Natal  has  ahvavs 
been  beset  with  the  same  fjuestion  which  perplexes  the  South 
African  coknii^ts.  it  lia>^  all  the  element^  of  great  future  ])rospcritv. 


226  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   191() 

Many  of  the  Boers,  instead  of  crossing  the  Drakenberg-,  re- 
mained in  the  district  of  the  Orange  and  Vaal  Rivers,  and  made 
the  beginnings  of  an  entirely  new  community.  This  fertile  district  is 
part  of  the  great  tableland  of  South  Africa.  It  lies  5000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  has  the  driest  and  most  healthful  climate  in  the  world. 
Here  many  of  the  Dutch  settled  down  with  their  herds,  and  they 
were  soon  joined  by  English  and  German  immigrants.  They  or- 
ganized their  community  as  a  Free-State  or  Republic,  governed  by 
a  president,  elected  for  four  years,  and  a  parliament  or  volksraad, 
elected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  various  districts.  One  of  the  Boers 
had  settled  near  a  spring  of  vvater  surrounded  with  rich  vegeta- 
tion. He  called  his  farm  Bloem-fontein,  or  Spring  of  Flowers,  and 
here  there  grew  up  the  little  town  which  is  now  the  capital  of  the 
Orange  River  Colony.  For  some  years  the  English  Government 
took  no  notice  of  these  settlers;  but  in  1845  ^^^^J  i^i^de  war  upon  the 
Griquas,  a  race  of  half-breeds,  who  had  emigrated  to  the  same  neigh- 
borhood early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  Griquas  were  under 
English  protection ;  and  the  government,  surmising  that  the  Boers 
would  not  very  strictly  respect  the  rights  of  the  Griquas,  sent  troops 
from  the  Cape  to  defend  them ;  and,  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing 
English  law,  proclaimed  the  sovereignty  of  England  over  all  the  rich 
territory  between  the  rivers  Orange  and  Vaal.  The  Boers  resisted  by 
force  of  arms,  but  they  were  reduced  to  submission,  and  a  number 
of  them,  led  by  one  Pretorius,  disgusted  at  finding  themselves  once 
more  subject  to  English  law,  migrated  to  the  other  side  of  the  Vaal, 
as  they  had  migrated  a  few  years  before  over  the  Orange  River. 
Alany  more  English  settlers  now  came ;  but  the  constant  troubles 
with  the  natives,  and  apprehension  of  a  continual  increase  of  the 
African  territory  of  the  Crown,  led  the  English  Government,  in 
1853,  to  cast  the  Orange  province  adrift.  So  little  was  then  known 
in  England  of  the  matter,  that  only  a  single  voice  was  raised  in 
tlie  Britisli  Parliament  against  tliis  measure.  Sir  Charles  Adder- 
ley,  as  everybod}-  now  admits,  was  right.  The  Orange  Free  State 
had  now  to  enter  alone  on  a  long  war  with  the  Basutos.  and  to  an- 
nex a  large  tract  of  Basutoland  to  their  territory.  The  people 
afterward  petitioned,  but  without  success,  to  be  readmitted  to  the 
riglits  of  British  citizens. 

In  i<S6i  tho^c  of  the  Boers  who  dwelt  to  the  north  of  the  Vaal 
River  formed  themselves  into  a  sei^arate  siate.  by  tlic  name  of  the 
South    African     Rcpui^lic.       Tlic    Triuir^va;.!    Jam]    rc^crnijle-    t'.ie 


S  O  U  T  H     A  F  R  I  C  A  227 

1800  1910 

Orange  River  Colony  except  that  it  is  somewhat  higher,  more 
tropical,  and  more  picturesque,  richer  in  minerals,  and  much  larger. 
The  Boers  of  the  Transvaal  established  a  government  like  that  of  the 
Orange  State,  \vit1i  a  president  and  volksraad.  Their  constitution 
was  semi-military,  the  governors  of  the  districts,  elected  by  the 
volksraad,  being  chiefly  men  who  had  become  famous  as  leaders 
of  periodical  raids  upon  tlie  natives.  Such  a  man  was  Presi- 
dent Pretorius,  who  died  in  1853,  and  after  wliom  the  seat  of 
government  was  named  Pretoria.  After  the  death  of  Pretorius. 
the  government  fell  into  great  disorder.  The  Dutch  provoked  the 
usual  disturbances  with  the  natives,  and  it  became  clear  that  there 
would  be  no  peace  for  the  Transvaal  until  it  was  taken  in  hand  by 
Englishmen.  The  Boers,  however,  hoped  to  avoid  interference : 
and  with  the  view  of  obtaining  access  to  the  sea  for  themselves, 
they  made  a  treaty  with  the  Portuguese  for  constructing  a  railway 
from  the  republic  to  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Delagoa  Bay. 

In  1867  a  diamond  was  found  in  the  rocjts  of  an  old  thorn  tree 
in  a  district  belonging  to  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  it  was  soon 
found  that  this  district  contained  more  diamonds  than  all  the  rest 
of  the  world  together.  This  great  discovery  was  at  first  kept 
secret,  but  in  1870  the  number  of  the  diamonds  tliat  found  their 
way  to  Europe  from  South  Africa  could  no  longer  be  concealed. 
A  great  infiux  of  diggers  now  took  place,  mcost  of  wliom  were 
English  ;  and  as  tlic  government  of  the  Orange  Free  State  was 
th.ought  to  be  i:n;ible  to  keep  order  among  them,  tlie  English  took 
possession  of  tlie  district,  availing  themselves  of  the  pretensions  of 
a  (jricjua  chief  named  W'ater-boer,  and  made  it  a  British  colony 
bv  the  n;.me  of  (iri([ua-land-west.  The  pc(i])le  ni  I'le  Orp.nge  Free 
State  protested  in  wiin  against  this  annexalion;  Irat  tlic  fiict  is  that 
tl]e  .states  of  South  ^\frica  lay  under  a  diO'culiy  wliicii  does  not  hap- 
pen in  otlicr  colonies,  and  vhich  ])erha]is  jn^tiHcd  tlie  Plnglisli  Gov- 
ernment in  wliat  ap;^cared  to  be  arbitrarx'  ])-  'lie}'.  The  Dutch  Boers. 
AViiate\-er  ma}-  l)e  the  reason.  caniMt  get  on  witli  the  nati\'es.  and 
tlieir  policN-  imperiled  the  position  of  tlie  Er.glish  colonists.  It 
later  became  clear  that  l^nglish  ;iiit!iority  must  in  some  shape  or 
otiier  be  reassertcl  o\cr  .all  the  1un-o]u>aai  settlements  at  ihe  Cape, 
and  the  occupatio:!  ni'  (F-i'::na-];in;l-west  was  tlie  ilrst  step  in  this 
process.  In  1^77  ( h"iqua-Ianvi-\ve,>t  was  united  witli  the  Cane 
Colony. 

l"o  Sir  George  Grey,  who  had  rendered  such  great  services  to 


228  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

tlie  empire  as  governor  of  South  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  be- 
longs the  credit  of  first  urging  the  policy  of  a  United  South  Africa. 
He  was  transferred  from  New  Zealand  to  the  governorship  of  the 
Cape  in  1853.  On  his  arrival  he  took  up  the  troublesome  question 
of  the  Kaffirs  with  characteristic  energy  and  success,  buying  up 
the  sovereign  rights  of  the  chiefs  and  colonizing  their  country  with 
the  soldiers  of  the  German  Legion  which  had  been  in  the  English 
service  during  the  Crimean  War.  He  recommended  the  union  of 
Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and  British  Kaffraria.  The  Orange  Free 
State  favored  the  project  and  took  steps  in  1858  to  bring  about 
annexation  to  Cape  Colony.  Grey's  plan  was  a  federal  union  of 
the  English  colonies  and  Boer  states  on  the  model  of  the  newly 
established  constitution  of  New  Zealand,  but  his  views  found  no 
acceptance  with  the  home  government  and  led  to  his  recall  in 
1859.  Fifteen  years  later  English  opinion  had  grown  up  to  his 
conception  of  the  necessity  for  a  general  government  over  all  South 
Africa,  with  a  uniform  policy  toward  the  natives  and  a  strong- 
power  for  maintaining  order.  To  understand  this  necessity  we 
must  bear  in  mind  both  the  geographical  conformation  of  this  vast 
district,  and  the  peculiar  system  under  which  it  has  been  colonized. 
It  is  not  like  that  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  by  which  the 
land  has  been  completely  occupied  piece  by  piece,  and  a  dwindling 
race  of  natives  has  been  gradually  driven  in  the  mass  farther  and 
farther  away.  Each  farmer  takes  to  himself  a  large  stretch  of 
land,  varying  from  six  to  twenty  thousand  acres,  only  a  small  part 
of  which  he  actually  occupies,  the  rest  being  left  as  wild  pasture. 
In  this  way  a  very  thin  European  population  soon  spreads  over  a 
vast  area,  from  which  it  is  impossible  to  exclude  the  natives,  who 
are  a  warlike  race,  multiplying  faster  than  the  Europeans,  and  con- 
tinually recruited  from  the  populous  interior  of  the  continent.  It 
is  thus  most  difficult  for  the  settlers  either  to  combine  for  self- 
defense,  or  to  calculate  the  extent  of  their  danger.  The  natives 
had  confidence  in  the  rule  of  the  English,  but  none  in  that  of  the 
Dulcli.  Tliey  were  advancing  in  many  ways,  especially  in  the  use 
of  hrearms ;  the  Dutch  were  ever  giving  them  provocations  to  break 
out,  wh.ich  ihey  were  only  too  ready  to  accept;  and  under  the  Boer 
governments  no  district  was  ever  free  from  apprehensions  of  a 
general  rising  against  the  Europeans.  The  opening  of  the  dia- 
mond fields  had  brought  South  African  affairs  into  public  notice 
and  the  success  of  the  newly  completed  federation  of  British  North 


SOUTHAFRICA  229 

ieoo-1910 

America  seemed  to  furnish  a  model  government  for  the  whole 
country.  The  Earl  of  Carnarvon,  as  colonial  secretary,  had 
brought  in  the  British  North  America  bill.  In  1874  he  was  again 
colonial  secretary  in  Disraeli's  second  administration  and  took 
up  with  enthusiasm  the  project  of  South  African  confederation. 
At  this  time  the  scheme  was  not  well  received  in  Cape  Colony  or 
the  Orange  Free  State.  Nevertheless  a  plan  of  union  was  formu- 
lated, and  approved  by  Parliament  in  1877,  '^"^^  Sir  Bartle  Frcre 
was  in  the  same  year  sent  out  as  governor  of  the  Cape  and  the 
first  high  commissioner  for  South  Africa.  He  found  the  Boers 
of  the  Transvaal  embroiled  with  the  Zulus,  ]MatabeIes,  and  Bech- 
uanas  on  their  eastern,  northern,  and  western  frontiers  respec- 
tively. The  natives,  supported  by  the  missionaries,  appealed  for 
English  protection,  as  did  the  English  residents  of  the  Transvaal. 
Sir  Theophilus  Shepstone,  the  successful  secretary  for  native  af- 
fairs in  Natal,  was  sent  out  by  Lord  Carnarvon  as  a  special  com- 
missioner for  South  Africa,  with  power  to  investigate  the  affairs 
of  the  Transvaal  and  if  necessary  to  take  possession  of  the  country. 
On  April  12,  1877,  he  issued  a  proclamation  i>f  annexation  and 
proceeded  to  administer  the  country  as  a  British  province.  The 
vigorous  protests  of  the  Boers  were  disregarded,  and  Shepstone  was 
sustained  by  the  home  government,  whicli  hoped  for  the  volun- 
tary entrance  of  the  Orange  Free  State  into  the  proposed 
confederation. 

The  English  now  took  up  the  Boer  quarrel  with  the  warlike 
and  formidable  Zulus.  The  territorial  demands  of  the  Boers  were 
abandoned,  but  Sir  Bartle  Frere  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity 
to  recpiire  the  reorganization  of  the  Zulu  military  system,  accept- 
ance of  a  British  resident,  protection  for  missionaries,  and  repara- 
tion for  past  luisdeeds.  1\)  enforce  these  demands  Zululand  was 
invaded  January  12,  1879.  Ten  days  later  two  British  battalions 
were  utterly  destroyed  at  Isandlana,  and  the  Natal  frontier  could 
only  be  held  against  the  victorious  Zulus  l)y  hard  fighting.  By  the 
end  of  March  the  forward  movement  was  resumed,  this  time  with 
success.  The  Zulus  were  everywhere  defeated,  their  capital  taken 
and  burned,  their  king,  Cetiwayo.  captured,  tlie  people  disarmed, 
and  the  country  organizcil  under  a  British  resident.  During  this 
struggle  the  Boers  stood  sullenly  aloof,  and  in  the  following  year 
rebelled,  declaring  the  inilependeiicc  of  the  Transvaal  December  13, 
1880.     A  week  later  a  small   l^witi>Ii    force  wa-^  defeated  and  cap- 


230  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

tured  by  tlie  insurgents  near  Bronkhorst  Spruit.  Other  Boer 
successes  at  Laing's  Neck  and  Ingago  were  followed  by  a  disastrous 
defeat  of  tlie  British  with  the  loss  of  their  commander,  Sir  George 
Colley,  at  Majuba  Hill,  on  February  26,  1881.  The  liberal  ministry 
of  Gladstone  was  now  in  power  in  England,  and  soon  made  peace, 
recognizing  the  independence  of  the  country  under  British  suze- 
rainty, with  a  British  resident  and  British  control  of  foreign 
relations. 

The  Boers  of  the  Transvaal,  or  South  African  Republic,  as 
their  state  was  now  called,  were  ambitious  for  expansion  north- 
ward beyond  the  Limpopo  River,  and  eastward  to  the  sea,  but 
were  thwarted  in  both  directions  by  the  English.  The  claims  of 
the  Portuguese  to  this  region  were  disregarded;  on  February  11, 
1888,  the  British  High  Commissioner  for  South  Africa  negotiated 
a  treaty  with  Lobengula,  king  of  the  powerful  Matabele  tribe,  and 
the  country  was  declared  within  the  sphere  of  British  influence. 
The  British  South  African  Company  was  organized  by  Cecil 
Rhodes,  premier  of  Cape  Colony,  a  millionaire  of  the  diamond 
fields,  to  develop  and  administer  the  country  north  and  west  of  the 
South  African  Republic  and  east  of  the  Portuguese  territory.  It 
received  a  royal  charter  October  29,  1889,  and  promptly  began  the 
organization  and  settlement  of  its  domain.  In  1893  war  broke 
out  with  the  Matabeles,  Lobengula  was  driven  into  exile  and  the 
English  were  soon  masters  of  the  whole  country.  The  dream  of 
Boer  expansion  northward  was  shattered.  To  the  west  the  way 
had  been  already  barred  by  the  British  protectorate  over  the  Becli- 
uana  tribes,  undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  English  missionaries. 
]\Ieanwhile  the  South  African  Republic  had  secured  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  convention  of  1881  by  which  its  independence  had  been 
recognized.  A  new  convention  was  signed  in  London  February 
27,  1884,  wherein  the  express  declaration  of  British  suzerainty  was 
omitted :  the  republic  undertook  to  conclude  no  treaty  or  engage- 
ment with  any  state  or  nation  otiier  than  the  Orange  Free  State. 
nor  with  any  native  tribe  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  republic 
witliout  the  appr(jval  of  the  British  Crown;  religious  freedom  was 
guaranteed ;  the  riglu  of  foreigners  to  travel,  reside,  and  trade  in 
the  country  on  equal  terms  with  the  Boers  was  secured,  and  all 
persons,  except  natives,  domiciled  there  during  the  British  occu- 
pation, were  exempted  from  militarv  service  upon  registration  with 
the    British    resident.      Tlie   volksraad    ot   the    republic    reluctRntly 


S  ()  U  T  H     A  ¥  RICA  231 

180U   191U 

ratified  this  convention,  seeing-  that  complete  independence  could 
not  be  obtained. 

Up  to  this  time  the  chief  wealth  of  the  South  African  Repub- 
lic, as  of  the  rest  of  South  Africa,  had  been  its  sheep  and  cattle, 
though  it  also  produced  large  quantities  of  grain.  The  people  led 
a  primitive  pastoral  life,  secure  in  their  remoteness  from  contact 
with  energetic  modern  civilization.  All  this  was  changed  by  the 
discovery  of  gold  deposits  of  wonderful  richness  in  the  Witvv'aters- 
rand,  about  half  way  between  the  capital  at  Pretoria  and  the  Vaal 
River.  Adventurers  from  ail  the  world  poured  into  the  gold  fields, 
])urchased  land  from  the  Boer  farmers  at  enormous  prices,  and 
went  energetically  to  work  to  develop  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
country.  These  "  Uitlauders,"  or  foreigners,  built  the  new  city 
of  Johannesburg,  and  v.ere  estimated  in  1890  at  100,000  souls. 
Millions  of  English  and  European  capital  were  invested  in  the 
mines,  and  the  new  industry  paid  four-fifths  of  the  rc/enues  of  the 
republic.  The  Boers  regarded  the  newcomers  witli  jealousy  and 
distrust,  forced  them  to  perform  military  service,  and  refused  to 
admit  them  to  the  privileges  of  citizenship.  Agitation  arose  among 
the  Uitlauders  for  tlie  redress  of  their  grievances  and  found  sym- 
pathy among  the  British  population  of  the  other  colonies  and 
leadership  in  the  person  of  Cecil  Rhodes,  premier  of  Cape  Colony. 
A  rising  of  the  Uitlauders  was  planned,  and  in  its  support  Dr. 
Jameson,  administrator  of  tlic  British  South  .Africa  Comj)any,  in- 
vaded the  republic  with  a  force  of  five  hundred  mounted  police  from 
l]cch.uanaland.  The  Johannesburgers  were  not  ready ;  Jameson's 
force  was  defeated  and  captured  on  New  Year's  Day,  1896,  and 
the  leaders  of  the  conspinicy  in  Johannesburg-  arrested.  The  for- 
mer were  handed  over  to  the  English  courts  for  trial  and  punish- 
ment. Of  the  latter  four  were  tried  for  treason  and  sentenced  to 
deatli,  but  were  afterward  released  upon  the  pavment  of  hea\"y 
fines.  Cecil  Rhodes  resigned  fr(jni  tlie  ])rcmiershii)  of  Cape  Col- 
nny  and  from  the  board  of  direct<^rs  of  the  Ih-itish  South  Africa 
Company.  :\  parliamentary  investigation  established  his  respon- 
sibility for  the  raid,  but  was  then  allowed  to  drop  by  the  consent 
of  all  parties,  apparently  for  ihe  pur])ose  of  shielding  from  ex- 
posure persons  of  still  higher  position  and  greater  inlluence.  The 
whole  unfortunate  afl:"air  spread  distrust  of  English  designs  and 
hostility  to  luiglish  rule  among  the  Dutcli  population  throughout 
South  Africa.     These  sentiments  found  ready  acceptance  antl  ex- 


232  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

pression  in  the  "Afrikander  Bund,"  or  National  party,  formed 
in  Cape  Colony  in  i88i  and  devoted  to  the  political  union  and  in- 
dependence of  all  the  European  nationalities. 

The  grievances  of  the  Uitlanders  were  promptly  taken  up  by 
the  British  Colonial  Secretary  Chamberlain,  who  insistently  urged 
upon  President  Kruger  suggestions  for  their  redress.  He  was 
met  by  counter  claims  for  the  abrogation  of  article  4  of  the 
London  convention  of  1884,  whereby  the  foreign  treaties  of  the 
republic  were  subject  to  a  British  veto;  for  money  damages  on  ac- 
count of  the  Jameson  raid,  and  for  the  punishment  of  the  officers 
of  the  British  South  Africa  Company  who  had  planned  the  raid. 
For  rejoinder  the  colonial  secretary  refused  any  modification  of 
article  4,  and  alleged  many  cases  wherein  the  republic  had  broken 
this  and  article  14,  guaranteeing  the  equal  rights  of  foreigners. 
Negotiations  were  carried  on  through  Sir  Alfred  Milner,  sent  out 
in  February  as  governor  of  Cape  Colony  and  high  commissioner 
for  South  Africa,  to  secure  such  modifications  of  the  franchise  law 
as  would  give  the  Uitlanders  a  substantial  voice  in  the  councils  of 
the  republic.  The  Boers  feared  that  this  would  mean  the  loss  of 
their  political  control,  and  refused  to  concede  it  in  spite  of  advice 
to  the  contrary  from  prominent  and  friendly  Cape  Dutch  and 
European  sympathizers.  Negotiations  ended  on  September  22, 
1899.  In  the  meantime  the  Afrikander  Bund  had  come  into  power 
in  Cape  Colony  witli  a  ministry  headed  by  W.  P.  Schreiner;  the 
British  South  Africa  Company  had  been  reorganized,  securing  a 
more  strict  control  of  its  territories  (Rhodesia)  by  the  colonial  of- 
fice; the  South  African  Republic  and  Orange  Free  State  had 
entered  into  an  alliance  to  repel  attacks  upon  the  independence  of 
either;  President  Kruger  and  the  volksraad  had  quarreled  with 
their  supreme  court  and  dismissed  the  chief  justice  from  office. 
British  and  Boers  were  arming,  each  accusing  the  other  of  taking 
the  first  warlike  step,  though  undoubtedly  the  Boer  preparations 
were  the  more  complete.  On  October  9  the  South  African  Re- 
public presented  an  ultimatum  demanding  the  settlement  of  all 
points  at  issue  by  arbitration  and  the  immediate  withdrawal  from 
South  Africa  of  British  troops  landed  there  since  June  i,  failure 
to  recei\-e  a  favorable  answer  within  two  days  to  be  taken  as  a 
declaration  of  war.  The  colonial  secretary  declined  to  discuss 
these  propositions,  the  Orange  Free  State  gave  notice  that  it  would 
support   the   South   African   Republic,   and   war  began   with    Boer 


S  0  U  'J'  II     A  F  R  I  C  A  233 

1800  1910 

invasions  of  Natal  and  Cape  Colony,  followed  by  proclamations  of 
annexation  to  the  republics,  and  in  Cape  Colony  by  formidable 
risings  of  tlie  Dutch  farmers  against  the  English  throughout  whole 
districts.  Siege  was  laid  to  Maf eking,  Kimberly,  and  Lady- 
smith.  All  attempts  of  the  English  to  advance  were  defeated  witli 
heavy  loss,  and  the  prospect  of  British  success  was  exceedingly 
dark.  In  this  emergency  Lord  Roberts  was  sent  out  as  com- 
mander in  chief,  with  Lord  Kitchener  as  chief  of  staff,  and  the 
forces  in  South  Africa  were  increased  to  200,000  men.  On  Feb- 
ruary II,  1900,  Lord  Roberts  took  the  offensive  in  Cape  Colony, 
Kimberly  was  relieved,  the  Boer  army  under  Cronje  surrounded 
and  captured  at  Paardeberg,  and  the  pressure  on  Ladysmith  relaxed 
so  that  its  relief  was  effected  by  Sir  Redvers  Buller.  Lord  Roberts 
occupied  Bloemfontein  on  March  12,  and  by  the  end  of  April  re- 
sumed the  advance  toward  Pretoria.  Pausing  at  Kroonstad  he 
issued  a  proclamation  on  ]May  24,  annexing  the  Orange  Free 
State  to  the  British  empire,  then  pressed  on  to  the  Vaal,  crossed  it 
on  j\Iay  26  and  27,  occupied  Johannesburg  on  'Slay  31  and  Pretoria 
on  June  5.  In  the  meantime  Mafeking  had  been  relieved  after  a 
siege  of  seven  months,  and  Buller  had  cleared  Natal  of  tlie  enemy. 
The  war  now  took  on  a  guerrilla  character.  Small  bands  of  Boers 
spread  over  an  immense  territory,  keeping  up  an  annoying  but 
ineffective  resistance.  The  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  was  pro- 
claimed October  25,  and  a  month  later  Lord  Roberts  returned  to 
England,  leaving  Lord  Kitchener  in  command. 

Hostilities  continued  until  May  31,  1902,  when  terms  of  sur- 
render were  negotiated  with  the  military  leaders  of  the  Boers 
whereby  British  sovereignty  was  acknowledged  and  the  concurrent 
use  of  the  English  and  Dutch  languages  in  schools  and  law  courts 
was  guaranteed.  The  British  Government  promised  that  military 
administration  should  be  as  brief  as  possible,  and  that  representa- 
tive institutions  leading  to  self-government  should  be  introduced  as 
soon  as  circumstances  would  permit.  The  imperial  parliament 
granted  5,000.000/.  ivom  imperial  funds  to  repair  the  losses  caused 
by  the  war  and  loaned  3.000,000/.  from  colonial  funds  to  assist  in 
restoring  the  people  to  their  homes.  Martial  law  was  abolished  in 
November,  1902. 

This  disastrous  war,  wageci  at  an  enonnous  sacrifice  of  life 
and  property  to  both  sides,  was  in  its  essence  a  struggle  of  the  two 
races   for  the  mastery  of  South   Africa.     Tlie  Cape  Dutch  were 


234  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

Openly  hostile  or  in  political  opposition  to  the  imperial  programme, 
and  the  English  volunteered  for  service  against  the  Boers  in  large 
numbers,  not  only  in  South  Africa  itself,  but  in  Canada  and  Aus- 
tralia also.  The  resulting  antagonism  is  for  the  present  an  effec- 
tual barrier  to  cordial  union  under  British  rule.  Yet  in  time  the 
Canadian  and  Australian  example  will  probably  be  followed  by  a 
confederation  of  all  the  British  colonies  in  the  country,  preserving 
the  language  and  law  of  the  former  Boer  states  as  French  institu- 
tions have  been  preser\^ed  in  Quebec.  For  the  present  the  ad- 
ministration of  tlie  conquered  territory  is  carried  on  by  a  governor 
over  both  colonies,  with  a  lieutenant  governor  and  executive  coun- 
cil in  each.  A  representative  government  was  granted  to  the 
Transvaal  by  Letters  Patent,  dated  March  31,  1905.  The  districts 
of  Vryheid,  Utrecht,  and  part  of  Wakkerstroom  were  in  1903  trans- 
ferred to  Natal,  to  which  they  geographically  belong.'^ 

-  A  census  of  British  South  Africa  taken  in  1904  showed  a  population  of 
1.115,000  whites,  4,000,000  blacks,  and  101,000  East  Indians,  an  increase  durinii 
thirteen  years  of  sixty  per  cent,  for  the  whites  and  eighty  per  cent,  for  the 
blacks.  Only  in  Orange  River  Colony,  with  its  143,000  whites  and  142,000 
blacks,  had  the  white  race  made  the  more  rapid  increase.  Cape  Colony  has 
575,102  whites  and  1,829,776  blacks;  Natal,  97.109  whites  and  i.opo.ooo  blacks; 
tlic  Transvaal  Colony  and  Swaziland,  300,225  whites  a»d  i.Qy^,Q73  Macks. 


Chapter   XIV 

BRITISH    DKPENDENCIKS.     18001910 

WE  have  now  seen  how  three  great  groups  of  English 
colonies,  besides  the  mighty  United  States  of  America, 
have  grown  up  in  a  short  time  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  and  have  attained  free  representative  government,  with 
full  control  of  administration,  through  ministries  responsible  to  the 
local  parliaments.  The  conditions  under  which  this  has  been  done 
are  peculiar,  and  not  easily  repeated  elsewhere,  so  that  it  is  hard  to 
see  where  any  fifth  English  colonial  nation  can  ever  be  founded. 
Such  colonies  require  a  large  expanse  of  productive  agricultural 
land,  which  must  lie  in  a  temperate  climate,  and  not  be  too  thickly 
peopled  by  native  races,  so  as  to  attract  a  continuous  stream  of  cap- 
ital and  labor.  They  i)resuppose  the  fonnation  of  strong  political 
instincts,  the  growth  of  a  class  of  colonists  possessed  of  some  leisure 
and  educ:ition,  continued  immunity  from  the  severer  forms  of 
social  disaster,  and  an  internal  prosperity  which  enables  them  to 
pay  the  expenses  of  their  own  government,  and  to  win  the  con- 
fidence of  older  states  where  there  is  money  to  be  lent  on  national 
credit.  Many  English  settlements  have,  of  course,  been  made 
where  some  of  these  conditions  cannot  be  fulfilled,  and  these  re- 
main under  the  control  of  the  mother-country,  under  the  name 
of  Crown  governments,  by  which  is  me:mt  that,  instead  of  making 
laws  for  IhemscKcs,  laws  are  made  for  them  Iw  the  Crown  in 
council,  (jr  by  a  local  g(n-crnor  and  council  appointed  by  the 
Crown,  instead  of  by  their  own  popular  representatives.  Con- 
trary to  whar  might  be  presumed,  this  class  of  colonies  has  of 
late  years  been  increasing:  for  some  colonies  which  had  free  institu- 
tions long  l)cfore  the  settlement  of  Englishmen  in  Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia, have  api)arently  ccime  to  drop  behind  in  the  race  of  colonial 
progress,  and  to  lap^e  into  the  condition  of  Crown  governments. 
This  has  been  tlie  ca^e  with  nearly  all  ihe  British  West  lndie^. 
fn  old  times  the  islands  were  not  much  the  better  for  their  inde- 
pendent  governments.     They    had    each    to   maintain    a    complete 


236  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

set  of  government  offices,  which  could  be  easily  filled  by  deputy, 
and  gradually  came  to  be  held  by  sinecurists  in  England,  and  as 
time  went  on  it  became  a  difficult  thing  to  get  the  planters  to 
take  any  interest  in  the  government.  The  wealthiest  planters 
were  always  absentees.  The  rest  were  too  busy  in  making  money 
to  care  anything  about  public  affairs,  and  when  their  fortunes  were 
once  made  they  became  absentees  also.  Hence  few  people  voted  or 
offered  themselves  as  candidates,  and  the  assemblies  were  often 
composed  of  obscure  and  ignorant  people.  They  made  all  kinds  of 
inconsistent  laws;  they  got  into  financial  difficulties;  their  govern- 
ments were  lax  and  corrupt,  and  shocked  Europe  by  the  cruelty 
with  which  the  slave  system  was  administered ;  and  when  at  length 
this  was  abolished,  and  the  protection  to  English-grown  sugar  was 
withdrawn,  new  troubles  began.  While  private  and  public  inter- 
ests had  alike  enough  to  do  to  weather  the  financial  storm,  the  freed 
negroes  became  unmanageable ;  they  got  into  the  assemblies,  and 
tried  to  turn  the  tables  on  their  former  masters.  Some  of  the 
islands  surrendered  their  old  constitutions,  and  have  since  been  in 
process  of  consolidation  into  a  less  number  of  larger  and  more 
efficient  governments  under  the  direct  authority  of  the  Crown. 
Besides  the  West  India  Islands  and  Trinidad,  Guiana,  Mauritius, 
and  Ceylon,  which  were  taken  from  the  French  and  Dutch  in  the 
wars  of  the  revolution,  and  some  others,  have  always  remained 
Crown  colonies.  Some  new  and  important  trade  settlements  in 
the  seas  east  of  India  come  under  the  same  head,  and  the  history 
of  the  Crown  governments  naturally  includes  one  or  two  free  gov- 
ernments like  Barbardos,  where  representative  institutions  are  in 
force  but  the  administration  is  not  responsible  to  the  legislature, 
and  practically  free  ones  like  Guiana.  Under  this  head,  therefore, 
we  shall  trace  the  history  of  what  remains  of  the  British  Colonial 
Empire  besides  the  three  great  groups  of  colonies  treated  of  in 
the  three  preceding  chapters. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  great  European  war  between  1805 
and  1 8 14,  the  French  and  their  allies  lost  all  their  colonies,  and  the 
naval  and  colonial  supremacy  of  England  was  thus  carried  to  its 
greatest  possible  height.  The  West  Indies  were  still  thought  to  be 
the  most  valuable  of  the  European  colonies;  and  every  island  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  except  Hayti,  was  now  at  the  mercy  of  the 
English.  At  the  peace  of  1814  all  the  conquests  in  the  West  In- 
'hcs  were  restored,  except  Tobago  and  St.  Lucie,  which  were  ceded 


BRITISH     D  E  r  E  N  D  E  N  C  I  E  S  237 

1800-1910 

by  France,  and  the  plantations  on  the  Dcmerara,  Essequibo,  and 
Berbice  rivers  in  Guiana,  which  were  ceded  by  Holland.  England 
thus  augmented  once  more  the  already  overgrown  empire  in  the 
West  Indies  which  she  had  been  nearly  two  centuries  in  building 
up.  Its  value  was  greatly  increased  by  the  total  ruin  of  the  trade 
of  Santo  Domingo.  Before  the  revolution,  Santo  Domingo  had  been 
the  most  flourishing  of  the  West  Indian  colonies ;  and  it  had  sup- 
plied France  and  most  of  continental  Europe  with  sugar  and  coffee. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  produce  of  Jamaica 
was  nearly  doubled,  in  consequence  of  the  ruin  of  Santo  Domingo, 
and  the  continuance  of  a  war  in  which  the  English  were  supreme 
at  sea.  It  reached  its  greatest  height  in  1806.  The  same  causes 
promoted  a  very  rapid  growth  in  Trinidad.  But  the  West  Indies 
were  no  longer  the  only  sugar-producing  colonies.  The  sugar 
production  of  Brazil,  and  in  the  east  of  Ceylon,  Mauritius,  and 
Java,  had  been  steadily  increasing  during  the  past  century ;  and 
the  West  India  planters  were  driven  hard  to  keep  the  command  of 
the  European  market.  The  West  Indies  had  thus  begun  to  decline 
in  real  importance  as  a  whole  at  the  time  when  they  reached  their 
greatest  prosperity.  And  this  prosperity  was  at  best  but  hazard- 
ous. The  islands  are  subject  to  great  hurricanes,  which  sometimes 
destroy  the  whole  of  the  crops  and  machinery,  besides  killing  the 
inhabitants;  the  planters  were  often  ruined,  and  thousands  of 
negroes  perished  of  famine.  In  1831,  for  instance,  there  was  a 
terrible  hurricane  in  Barbados,  in  which  2500  persons  were  killed, 
and  property  was  destroyed  to  the  amount  of  twelve  million 
dollars;  and  many  others  are  matters  of  local  history.  The 
hurricanes  are  sometimes  rivaled  in  destructiveness  by  earthquakes. 
In  1692  one  of  the  most  awful  of  these  visitations  buried  Port 
Royal,  the  ancient  capital  of  Jamaica,  eight  fathoms  under  water. 
The  Frencli  Government,  less  scrupulous  than  that  of  England  in 
disposing  of  the  produce  of  taxation,  often  reimbursed  the  planters 
for  such  losses,  and  the  English  Government  was  obliged  to  follow 
their  example.  The  W'est  Indies  were  thus  maintained  in  an  artifi- 
cial position,  partly  for  the  benefit  of  a  certain  number  of  capitalists 
and  merchants,  partly  out  of  regard  ior  a  doubtful  political  princi- 
ple, and  partly  as  affording  a  large  amount  of  interest  and  pat- 
ronage to  the  govcr:iincnt,  at  the  expense  of  unceasing  cruclt}'  and 
injustice  to  the  negro  race,  and  (jf  a  tax,  in  the  shape  of  protective 
duties  on  their  produce,  which  fell  heavily  upon  the  poorer  classes  in 


tiSa  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

England.  This  could  not  go  on  long  after  the  moral  and  political 
awakening  which  came  with  the  latter  years  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury; and  we  shall  now  see  how  the  West  India  Islands  have  lost 
their  artificial  prosperit}^,  and  have  had  to  begin  a  new  career, 
in  which  they  have  no  advantage  over  the  rest  of  the  colonial 
world. 

The  British  slave  trade  was  at  its  greatest  height  just  before 
the  outbreak  of  American  Independence.  In  1771  English  vessels 
carried  47,000  negroes  to  the  plantations;  and  those  of  other  na- 
tions brought  about  35.000  a  year  more.  Many  thousands  more 
were  annually  murdered  in  the  perpetual  wars  which  were  carried 
on  among  the  natives  in  Africa,  to  feed  this  unnatural  traffic,  and 
great  numbers  often  perished  in  the  horrors  of  the  Middle  Passage. 
The  agitation  against  the  trade  had  originated  among  the  Quakers 
of  Pennsylvania,  from  whom  it  spread  to  the  other  American 
colonies :  and  the  Virginia  Assembly  had  petitioned  the  Crown 
against  it  shortly  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  But 
England  refused  to  give  up  this  profitable  iniquity.  It  was  clear 
that  its  aljolition  would  only  be  a  step  toward  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery itself;  and  in  slavery  man}'  good  people  saw  no  harm  w^hatever. 
or  thought  that  what  harm  there  might  be  was  quite  justified  by  the 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  it  in  the  Bible.  Even  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  owned  plantations  in  the  West 
Indies  worked  by  slaves.  Many  people  wished  for  the  abolition 
of  the  trade  who  saw  great  difficulties  in  abolishing  slavery  itself. 
At  any  rate,  there  was  no  prospect  of  the  abolition  of  the  trade  until 
after  the  English  slavers  had  lost  the  monopoly  of  the  ports  of  the 
United  States.  This  happened  in  1783;  and  the  scope  of  the  slave 
trade  was  now  greatly  narrowed.  There  could  be  no  pretense  that 
the  \\"est  Indies  wGre  not  sufficiently  stocked  with  laborers ;  and. 
encouraged  by  tlie  success  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Societies. 
a  number  of  humane  Englishmen,  foremost  among  whom  was 
Thomas  Clarkson,  now  labored  to  call  public  attention  to  the  mat- 
ter. It  was  introduced  to  parliament  in  1789  by  Wilberforce: 
the  atr(jcion>  nature  oi  tlie  trade  was  amply  proved  before  a 
committee  of  the  house,  and  Denmark,  while  following  the  ex- 
ample i)\  England,  actually  anticipated  it  by  abolishing  the  trade 
in  1793.  But  the  progress  of  the  movement  was  stayed,  like  that 
(^l  so  many  others.  l)y  the  hVench  Revolution.  It  was  thought  to 
savor  of  JM-ench  principles:  and  for  several  years  Wilberforce  was 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  239 

1800-1910 

outvoted  in  his  annual  motions  in  its  favor,  until  in  1800  he  ceased 
to  make  them. 

The  final  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was  forced  on  by  the 
success  of  the  English  in  the  wars,  by  the  ruin  of  her  rivals,  and 
by  the  consequent  great  increase  in  the  produce  of  the  English 
West  Indies.  The  English  people  had  long  been  disgusted  with 
this  wicked  and  inhuman  traffic;  and  they  now  saw  the  price  of 
slaves  doubled,  and  a  new  stimulus  given  to  the  trade,  while  many 
thousands  more  were  added  to  the  black  population  of  the  West 
Indies,  already  sufficiently  formidable.  The  example  of  Hayti  was 
alarming,  and  the  operations  against  that  island  had  shown  the 
l£nglish  Government  the  difficulty  of  quelling  a  general  insurrec- 
tion of  the  blacks,  if  headed  by  intelligent  leaders.  The  number  of 
free  negroes  and  mulattoes  was  greatly  increasing:  many  of  the 
principal  islands,  such  as  Trinidad,  Tobago,  and  Grenada,  were 
occupied  by  French  planters  and  French  mulattoes ;  insurrections 
had  already  desolated  the  islands  of  St.  Vincent  and  Grenada ;  and 
it  was  clear  that  either  an  end  must  be  put  to  the  further  importa- 
tion of  slaves,  or  a  large  addition  must  be  made  to  the  military 
forces  stationed  in  the  islands.  These  considerations,  urged  on  b}' 
the  increasing  force  of  public  opinion,  which  had  now  been  directed 
to  the  subject  for  twenty  years,  prevailed  with  the  English  Parlia- 
ment;  and  in  1804,  during  the  Addington  administration,  Wilber- 
torce's  Bill  prohibiting  the  slave-trade  was  supported  both  by 
Pitt  and  Fox,  and  j^assed  the  house  of  commons.  It  was  re- 
jected in  the  lords;  but  it  became  law  in  1806,  after  the  acces- 
sion to  power  of  stronger  ministers.  Of  the  consequences  of  the 
abolition  of  tlie  slave  trade,  one  of  the  most  interesting  to  the  his- 
torian is  that  it  caused  the  repeal  of  the  navigation  laws  and  the 
abandonment  of  the  last  relics  of  the  old  colonial  system.  Slavery 
and  montjpol}',  the  two  parasitical  growths  that  have  alwavs 
threatened  to  choke  colonial  progress,  were  tluis  cut  away  together. 
All  the  \\  est  India  islands  were  fed  on  imported  corn  and  meat, 
and  it  was  ncAV  impossible  to  keep  the  planters  from  feeding  their 
slaves  on  the  cheapest  supplies.  By  four  distinct  stages  (  1822. 
1825,  1833,  '^"^  1*^43)  t'^c  l'^'^^'^  which  hampered  their  import  trade 
w  ith  foreign  countries  were  removed  ;  and  so  far  as  trade  was  con- 
cerned, the  West  Indies  were  placed  in  the  s;ime  situation  as  re- 
garded foreign  countries  as  if  they  had  fnrmod  part  of  Great 
I'ritain.     The  abolition  of  the  British  Slave  Trade  was  but  the  tnr.n 


240  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

and  easiest  victory  in  a  series  of  hard  struggles.  It  was  not  so 
easy  to  persuade,  and  sometimes  to  compel,  less  civilized  nations 
to  abolish  the  traffic.  Besides,  slavery  still  existed  as  an  institu- 
tion. It  was  hoped  that  this  cutting  off  of  the  supply  would  put 
an  end  to  that  system  of  working  negroes  to  death  which  was  prac- 
ticed in  some  cases  by  planters  who  considered  it  cheaper  to  buy 
slaves  than  to  breed  them,  and  that  henceforth  the  slaves  would 
be  more  humanely  used  out  of  mere  economy.  The  United  States 
abolished  the  slave-trade  in  the  same  year,  and  henceforth  both 
countries  devoted  themselves  to  procuring  its  abolition  all  over 
the  world. 

The  hopes  that  had  been  entertained  of  a  gradual  improve- 
ment in  the  condition  of  the  slaves  proved  groundless.  On  the 
contrary,  their  owners  too  often  treated  them  with  increased 
cruelty ;  and  perhaps  the  grossest  inhumanities  on  record  were 
committed  upon  his  slaves  by  a  wretch  named  Hodge,  who  was 
hanged  at  Tortola  in  1811.  The  English  Government  in  vain  tried 
to  get  the  local  assemblies  to  improve  their  laws  as  regarded  the 
negroes,  and  at  last  sent  out  warning  messages,  which  were  angrily 
returned  by  the  planters,  who  threatened  to  revolt,  as  the  colonists 
of  America  had  already  revolted,  if  the  mother  country  meddled  in 
their  domestic  affairs.  This  was  mere  bravado,  for  if  England  had 
withdrawn  the  troops  the  blacks  could  easily  have  massacred  the 
whole  of  the  whites  in  the  British  West  Indies.  As  the  true  state 
of  the  negroes  became  known,  public  opinion  at  home  was  again 
thoroughly  roused.  At  length,  in  1831,  a  ruinous  insurrection 
broke  out  among  the  blacks  of  Jamaica,  who  believed  that  England 
had  freed  them,  and  that  their  masters  were  cheating  them  out  of 
their  liberty.  The  general  successes  of  a  Liberal  ministry  now 
paved  the  way  for  a  final  settlement;  and  Buxton  at  length 
crowned  the  labors  of  many  years  by  carrying  through  parliament 
a  bill  abolishing  slavery  in  the  English  colonies  after  the  year 
1834.  Twenty  millions  sterling  were  voted  as  compensation  to  the 
slave-owners;  and  this  vast  payment,  raised  out  of  the  taxes  of 
the  nation  without  an  (uitcry  from  any  class  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  was  certainly  an  act  of  moral  grandeur  to  which  it  would 
be  hard  to  find  a  parallel  in  history.  The  negroes  were  to  remain 
for  a  certain  term  of  years  in  a  state  of  tutelage  or  "apprentice- 
ship." Antigua,  however,  set  a  wise  example  by  giving  them  com- 
plete freedom  at  uncc;  and  die  apprenticeship  was  first  shortened, 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  241 

1800-1910 

and  afterward  completely  abolished.  The  abolition  of  slavery  was 
received  with  great  joy  by  the  negroes ;  and  at  length  even  the 
planters  came  to  believe  that  free  blacks  would  work  harder  than 
slave  blacks,  as  the  philosophers  were  always  telling  them,  and  that 
the  ciiange  would  therefore  be  greatly  to  their  advantage.  The 
philosophers,  however,  were  quite  wrong,  as  we  shall  shortly  see. 
The  freed  negroes  abandoned  the  plantations  in  great  numbers 
and  raised  food  for  themselves  on  their  little  patches  of  land  in- 
stead of  depending  on  imported  foodstuffs  as  before.  The  annual 
yield  of  the  sugar  crop  decreased,  but  the  general  well-being  of  the 
population  increased. 

English  notions  of  the  effect  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  and 
the  slave-trade  in  the  West  Indies  have  naturally  been  derived  from 
the  condition  of  the  principal  English  island.  During  the  present 
century  the  decline  of  Jamaica  since  the  abolition  has  been  con- 
spicuous; and  the  more  so  because  of  the  enormous  stimulus  which 
was  given  to  its  production  in  the  first  years  of  the  century.  But 
no  other  island  declined  at  once  in  the  same  proportion,  and  tliis 
would  be  enough  to  show  that  the  decline  of  Jamaica  cannot  have 
been  entirely  caused  by  the  abolition.  The  fact  is,  that  the  decay 
of  Jamaica  had  been  going  on  all  through  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  was  only  completed  by  this  final  shock.  The  white  population 
at  the  beginning  of  tlie  century  had  numbered  60,000:  in  1757  it 
was  only  25,000.  The  negroes  had  diminished,  though  in  a  less 
proportion  than  the  whites.  At  the  latter  epoch,  which,  notwith- 
standing tliis  decay,  was  one  of  great  external  pro.sperity,  not 
one-tenth  of  the  island  was  under  any  kind  of  cultivation.  In  Wil- 
liam Penn's  time  improved  land  in  Jamaica  was  as  valuable  as  in 
Barbados,  and  worth  three  times  as  much  as  similar  land  in  Eng- 
land; but  a  hundred  years  later  land  was  of  just  as  little  value  by 
comparison  with  Barbados  and  Antigua  as  at  the  present  day. 
The  fact  is  that  Jamaica  had  been  wasted  by  continual  earthquakes, 
hurricanes,  and  pestilences.  Through  the  ignorance  of  English 
financiers  it  had  entirely  lost  one  branch  of  its  trade — the  cultiva- 
tion of  indigo;  and  its  general  wealth  and  credit  had  greatly 
diminished.  This  decline  was,  of  course,  accelerated  by  abolition; 
the  freed  negroes  had  no  reason  for  laboring,  and  settled  on  the 
uncultivated  lands,  \vhere  they  easily  subsisted  on  their  gardens  or 
"  provision  grounds."  whereas  in  Barbados,  where  even^  rod  of 
land  was  under  cultivation,  tlicv  were  obliged  to  work  for  wacres 


242  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

to  make  a  living-,  like  the  farm  laborers  of  England.  In  most  of 
the  other  islands,  just  as  in  Barbados,  the  value  of  land  and  the 
amount  of  sugar  produced  were  increased  by  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery. The  demand  for  additional  labor  was  supplied  by  importing 
free  emigrants  from  the  hills  of  India,  called  coolies,  as  well  as 
Portuguese  from  Madeira;  and  this  competition  made  it  necessary 
for  the  negroes  to  work  in  good  earnest,  unless  they  wished  to 
starve.  Trinidad  and  Guiana  took  the  lead  in  the  application  of 
coolie  labor,  and  this  enabled  them,  to  bear  the  effects  of  abolition 
better  than  the  older  sugar  colonies.  But  the  produce  of  Guiana 
in  1839,  when  the  apprenticeship  system  terminated,  fell  at  once 
to  half  the  average  quantity,  and  a  heavy  blow  soon  fell  upon  the 
sugar  colonies  from  another  quarter. 

All  the  West  Indian  colonies  had  existed  under  abnormal 
economic  conditions.  They  were  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
sugar,  coffee  and  a  few  other  high-priced  staples  for  export  and 
suffered  from  tlie  ills  usually  attendant  upon  such  a  system  of 
agriculture :  exhaustion  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  absenteeism 
of  the  great  landowners,  and  heavy  expense  for  the  importation  of 
provisions  for  tlie  miserable  slaves.  The  only  measure  of  pros- 
perity was  the  value  of  the  staples  exported,  without  regard  to  the 
well-being  of  the  black  population,  which  in  the  wealthy  French 
colony  of  Santo  Domingo  outnumbered  the  whites  twenty  to  one. 
All  the  islands  went  through  the  same  economic  cycle  beginning 
with  mioderate  and  widely  dift'used  prosperity  when  the  virgin  soil 
was  worked  by  a  large  number  of  free  proprietors  with  com- 
paratively smrJl  holdings,  passing  to  an  era  of  factitious  prosperity 
marked  by  increased  exports  and  great  estates  w^orked  for  the 
benefit  of  absentee  owners  by  gangs  of  slaves,  and  ending  in 
l)remature  decay  when  diminished  fertility  increased  the  cost  of 
production  and  the  competition  grew  more  severe  as  new  land  w-as 
brought  urider  cultivation  in  other  colonies.  The  Lesser  Antilles. 
Jamaica,  Sanlo  l^omingo,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico  have  successively 
passed  through  tliis  ])rocess  of  development  and  decay.  By  the 
end  of  the  eighteentli  century  the  English  islands  had  reached 
the  third  stage.  Their  hardships  were  increased  by  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States.  Before  this  their  supplies  of  food- 
stuffs had  come  from  the  English  continental  temperate-zone 
C(jlonies.  The  artificial  barriers  in  which  the  mercantile  system 
confined    colonial    trade    corresponded    somewhat    roughly    to    its 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  243 

1800-1910 

natural  channels.  By  a  triangular  course  of  trade  the  food-stuffs 
of  the  continent  were  exported  to  the  British  West  Indies,  the 
staples  of  the  latter  to  England,  and  English  manufactures  to  the 
colonies  on  the  continent.  The  political  independence  of  the  United 
States  was  a  dam  across  the  current  of  this  trade,  cutting  them 
off  from  any  share  in  it,  but  inflicting  far  greater  hardships  on 
the  British  West  Indies,  which  now  must  get  their  provisions  from 
Canada.  In  Jamaica  alone  15,000  blacks  perished  from  famine 
from  1780  to  T787,  and  even  in  1831,  when  the  exclusive  system 
was  to  a  great  degree  relaxed,  the  annual  increased  cost  of  pro- 
duction in  the  islands  from  this  cause  was  estimated  at  187,000/. 
sterling.  The  competition  of  the  sugar  producing  colonies  of 
Mauritius  and  the  East  Indies  could  not  be  met  on  equal  terms, 
and  the  sugar  export  from  the  West  Indies  remained  practically 
stationary  for  the  twenty  years  preceding  emancipation,  while  the 
growing  population  of  Great  Britain  paid  a  high  price  for 
sugar  and  had  less  per  capita  year  by  year.  The  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade  had  only  increased  the  difficulties  of  the  planters,  since 
it  left  them  exposed  to  the  competition  of  the  planters  of  Brazil 
and  Cuba,  who  still  enjoyed  the  aflvantage  of  this  labor  supply. 
All  these  causes  had  produced  a  long  period  of  depression  in  the 
P.ritish  West  Indies  before  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  the  trade 
restrictions  of  the  colonial  system  had  perforce  been  somewhat 
relaxed.  In  1797  trade  with  the  United  States  was  permitted 
under  certain  vexatious  restrictions,  which  were  made  much  less 
severe  by  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1822.  This  act  also 
opened  trade  with  foreign  European  ports,  and  still  greater  liberty 
was  allowed  in  1826.  By  this  time  the  duties  levied  in  Great  Britain 
upon  colonial  produce  had  been  lowered  or  abolished.  All  these 
changes  were  distinctly  favonible  to  the  planters,  for  whose  benefit 
the  differential  sugar  duties  in  Great  Britain  were  still  exacted. 
The  worst  misfortur.e  ikhv  came  that  could  possibly  have 
f)cfallcn  the  British  \\'est  Indies.  Eike  the  abolition  of  slaver\\ 
the  abolition  of  the  differential  sugar  diilies  was  not  unforeseen, 
for  it  was  an  incvitalile  result  of  the  juster  and  more  enlightened 
])olicy  whicli  luiglaiid  had  now  begun  to  put  in  practice.  Eormerly 
I  he  raw  sugar  of  the  f'jrc'gn  planicrs  could  emly  enter  England 
on  payment  of  a.  duty  twice  as  great  as  that  levied  on  English 
West  Indian  sugar:  and  all  the  inha.bitants  of  tlie  British  I-h;- 
were  thus  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  the  West  Indian  planters.     Evcii 


^U  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

the  sugar  of  India  was  thus  taxed,  though  to  a  less  extent.  The 
question  whether  the  people  of  England  were  to  continue  thus 
taxed  for  the  benefit  of  one  small  class  had  been  already  fought 
out  in  the  case  of  the  Corn  Laws;  and  in  the  same  year  (1846) 
in  which  the  duty  on  foreign  corn  was  abolished,  the  tax  on  foreign 
sugar  was  abolished  also,  an  act  being  passed  by  which  the  pro- 
tective duties  were  to  be  diminished  every  year  until  in  185 1  they 
were  to  cease  altogether.  The  collapse  which  this  caused  pro- 
duced in  1848  the  extension  of  the  time  for  three  years  longer. 
If  we  take  into  account  Trinidad  and  Guiana,  we  may  say  that 
this  great  measure  has  produced  no  general  depression  in  the 
West  Indies  as  a  whole.  Prices  and  profits  of  course  fell ;  but 
in  five  years  after  the  abolition  the  British  islands  produced  20,000 
tons  of  sugar  above  the  average  of  the  last  five  years  of  protection. 
But  the  older  sugar  islands  of  the  West  Indies  were  even,  for  a 
physical  reason,  less  able  to  meet  the  strain  of  competition  than 
Trinidad  and  Guiana.  One  or  two  degrees  of  average  heat  make 
a  very  great  difference  in  the  yield  of  the  sugar  cane,  and  for 
this  reason  we  see  that  its  cultivation  has  gradually  tended  more 
and  more  southward.  In  the  ^Middle  Ages  it  was  grown  in  the 
Mediterranean ;  from  thence  it  was  carried  to  iNIadeira  and  the 
Canaries;  then  to  the  Leeward  and  Windward  Islands,  and  during 
the  nineteenth  century  the  chief  production  was  still  nearer  to  the 
equator,  in  Trinidad,  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Java.  This  physical 
fact  has  increased  the  W'est  Indian  difficulty,  and  it  told  at  once 
upon  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  West  Indies.  Jamaica  also  was 
again  peculiarly  unlucky.  The  island  was  desolated  by  cholera, 
which  carried  off  40,000  negroes;  the  coolies  who  were  beginning 
to  arrive  from  India  had  to  be  sent  back,  and  the  planters  believed 
themselves  ruined  by  the  English  Parliament.  No  less  than  140 
sugar  estates  were  abandoned  in  Jamaica  between  the  years  183.? 
and  1848. 

The  planters,  especially  in  Jamaica,  had  stubbornly  resisted 
all  tlicse  measures.  When  the  negroes  were  emancipated,  they 
tried  to  forestall  future  difficulties  by  passing  an  Electoral  Reform 
Act,  whicli  extended  the  franchise  to  the  blacks;  and  fifteen  black 
men  at  once  found  seats  in  the  Jamaica  Assembly.  But  this  only 
increased  ihc  negro  difficulty.  The  blacks  thought  themselves  en- 
titled to  tb.e  land  of  the  planters;  they  refused  to  work  on  the 
plantations,   and   therefore   could  pay   no   rent;  and  at  length,   in 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  ^45 

1800  I9I0 

1865,  they  broke  out  in  an  insurrection  as  formidable  as  the 
rising  of  1831,  The  ultimate  cause  lay,  no  doubt,  in  the  indolence 
and  unreasonableness  of  a  particular  class  among  the  blacks;  for 
a  large  number  remained  loyal  to  the  government.  The  fact  that 
out  of  4CX),ooo  Jamaica  negroes,  60,000  had,  at  this  time,  legally 
become  landowners,  sufficiently  shows  that  they  lay,  as  a  class, 
under  no  political  disadvantages.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
planters,  irritated  by  constant  failures  in  their  business  for  lack 
of  labor,  treated  them  with  undue  harshness.  They  had  suffered 
the  negroes  to  squat  and  plant  "  provision  grounds  "  on  their  es- 
tates; and  though  they  might  be  justified  in  turning  them  away 
when  they  refused  to  pay  rent,  it  was  unwise  and  impolitic  to 
destroy,  as  they  often  did,  the  huts  and  yam-crops  of  the  poor 
squatters,  so  as  to  drive  them  to  work  by  starvation.  We  cannot 
wonder  that  the  assembly  was  unequal  to  deal  with  the  crisis. 
Finding  it  impossible  to  maintain  the  independent  government, 
they  surrendered  the  constitution,  at  the  instance  of  Governor 
Eyre,  and  Jamaica  has  since  been  governed  by  a  legislative  council 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands,  in  the 
Bahama  group,  and  British  Honduras,  of  which  England  obtained 
legal  possession  from  Spain  in  1786,  were  combined  with  the 
government  of  Jamaica  in  1873.  Honduras  now  has  a  separate 
government  of  its  own  as  a  Crown  colony.  It  was,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  settlement  formed  to  supply  England  with  mahogany  from 
the  forests  of  Central  America.  Like  the  sugar  of  Jamaica,  the 
mahogany  of  Honduras  was,  in  the  old  times,  imported  under  the 
protection  of  duties  on  foreign  supplies.  These  were  of  course 
removed  when  the  principle  of  free  trade  was  established,  and 
since  that  time  the  Honduras  merchants  liave  been  exposed  to  a 
sharp  competition  with  tliose  of  Mexico  and  Hayti.  It  has  been 
the  policy  of  the  government  to  procure  the  surrender  of  the  con- 
stitutions of  all  the  rest  of  the  islands,  and  to  combine  them  in 
another  single  government.  Hitherto,  however,  this  measure  has 
only  been  executed  in  tlie  Leeward  Islands,  the  six  governments  of 
which  were  consolidated  into  one  confederation  in  1871,  Antigua 
being  the  seat  of  government.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the 
islands  had  been  in  a  steadily  declining  condition,  and  were  unable 
to  bear  the  expenses  of  their  separate  establishments.  Dominica, 
for  instance,  w-ith  only  25.000  inhabitants,  which,  under  French 
rule,  had  been  combined  witli  several  otlicr  islands  under  one  set 


246  COLONIES     OF     THE     AVORLD 

1800  1910 

of  officials,  had  under  the  old  English  system  been  made  a  sep- 
arate colony,  and  had  to  maintain  fifty-three  officials  for  itself 
alone.  We  can  easily  see  how  glad  the  half  ruined  planters  must 
have  been  to  get  rid  of  this  burden,  and  to  combine  with  the  rest 
in  one  government.  The  group  is  now  divided  into  five  presi- 
dencies with  one  governor,  a  federal  executive  council,  and  a  fed- 
eral legislative  council  of  sixteen  members,  eight  of  whom  are 
nominated  by  the  Crown  and  eight  elected  by  the  unofficial  mem- 
bers of  the  local  legislative  councils  of  Antigua,  Dominica,  and  St. 
Kitts.  The  local  government  of  the  several  presidencies  is  carried 
on  by  councils  partly  or  wholly  nominated  by  the  Crown. 

The  case  in  the  Windward  Islands  was  somewhat  different. 
Public  opinion  here  has  been  led  by  the  planters  of  Barbados,  who 
still  retain  their  representative  assembly  and  a  large  measure  both 
of  prosperity  and  of  public  spirit.  They  prize  their  political  inde- 
pendence, and  believe  that  good  times  still  await  the  West  Indies. 
They  think  also  that  what  Tobago  and  Grenada  would  gain  by 
confederation,  would  be  so  much  loss  to  Barbados ;  and  without 
Barbados  it  seemed  useless  to  make  even  the  beginning  of  a  com- 
bined government  for  the  Windward  Islands.  At  last  Tobago  was 
annexed  to  Trinidad,  which  had  always  been  a  Crown  colony. 
Grenada  became  a  Crown  colony  in  1876,  and  now  with  St,  Lucia 
and  St.  Vincent  forms  the  government  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
with  a  common  governor  and  court  of  appeals,  but  separate  legis- 
lative councils  whose  m.embers  are  nominated  by  the  Crown.  The 
Bahamas  have  been  little  affected  by  West  Indian  events.  They 
still  retain  their  representative  assembly,  which  is  elected  from 
eleven  different  islands,  of  which  San  Salvador,  the  first  land 
sighted  by  Columbus,  is  one.  This  assembly  meets  at  Nassau,  on 
the  Island  of  New  Providence,  and  under  it  the  islands  seem  to 
enjoy  a  moderate  prosperity.  The  Bahamas  have  disendowed  their 
established  churcli.  and  have  dealt  eft'ectually  with  the  question  of 
negro  squatting;  but  the  uncertainty  of  the  climate  often  operates 
badly  upon  their  trade,  which  is  chiefly  in  salt,  sponges,  and  tropi- 
cal fruits. 

The  great  sugar-producing  colonies  of  Trinidad  and  Guiana 
have  a  very  different  history  to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  West  Indies. 
Both  were  accjuired  by  England  through  the  wars  of  the  revolu- 
tion; they  Vv-ere  peopled  by  a  race  very  different  from  the  British 
planters ;  and  tb.ey  escaped  the  worst  of  the  calamities  wliicli  be- 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  247 

1800-191O 

fell  Jamaica  and  tlie  Leeward  Islands,  because,  instead  of  foolishly 
resisting  emancipation  and  then  falling  into  apathy  and  despair, 
they  at  once  took  active  measures  for  procuring  a  supply  of  free 
labor  from  India,  China,  and  the  Canaries.  Trinidad  had  been 
unusually  favored  in  the  latest  Spanish  commercial  policy.  Its 
trade  had  been  tlirown  open  by  Galvez  in  I77<S;  and  in  1783  was 
taken  the  surjirising  resolution  to  open  the  island  to  Catholic  set- 
tlers of  all  nations.  At  this  time  the  island  did  not  contain  3000 
people  of  all  colors,  and  it  produced  neither  sugar  nor  coffee,  but 
when  the  English  captured  it  in  1797.  it  was  found  to  contain 
nearly  18,000  inhabitants,  and  nearly  300  sugar  and  coffee  planta- 
tions. So  many  of  the  immigrants  were  French  that  French  soon 
became  the  language  of  the  island.  The  troubles  of  Hayti  had 
contributed  to  this  influx  of  French  settlers  more  than  anything 
else;  and  immigration  began  from  Ireland  and  Scotland  under  the 
English  rule.  While  Jamaica  was  going  back,  and  Barbados  only 
holding  its  ground,  Trinidad  was  rapidly  advancing:  and  its  im- 
ports and  exports  steadily  increased.  Unlike  most  of  the  \\'est 
India  Islands,  which  consist  mostly  of  belts  of  alluvial  soil  sur- 
rounding an  interior  of  barren  highlands,  nearly  the  whole  of 
Trinidad  is  extremely  productive.  Its  chief  exports  are  sugar, 
cocoa,  and  asphalt.  British  Guiana,  which  has  a  very  similar  his- 
tr)ry,  was  at  one  time  placed  under  the  same  governor  with  Trini- 
dad. It  is  divided  into  three  prtn-inces,  named  fn^n  its  three  great 
rivers.  Demerara,  Fsscqnibo,  and  Berbice.  It  has  become  by  far 
the  most  flourishing  of  the  English  sugar  colonies,  exporting  more 
hogsheads  every  year  than  any  of  the  islands.  The  planters  are 
wealthy  men.  and  use  steam-power  and  modern  machinery  for 
sugar-making.  Trade  has  also  grown  up  in  the  timber  of  the  in- 
land forest  districts,  and  gold  and  diamond  mining  are  important 
industries.  A  boundary  dispute  with  Venezuela  which  had  been 
awaiting  settlement  for  half  a  century  suddenly  became  an  inter- 
national question  of  the  first  imj^ortance  in  1895.  '^^^'^^  United 
States,  in  its  traditional  attitude  of  friendliness  toward  smaller 
American  nations,  demanded  that  Great  Ih-itain  submit  the  entire 
dispute  in  all  its  phases  to  arbitration.  Though  the  demand 
was  just,  the  circumstances  and  manner  of  its  putting  forth 
might  easily  have  seriously  imperiled  tlie  peace  of  the  two  great 
Anglo-Saxon  nations.  l-\)rtunate]y  a  rupture  was  avoided.  Tie 
English   people  and   press   in   admirable   temper   refused   to   think 


248  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

of  a  war  with  their  kinsfolk  upon  such  an  issue,  and  the  Eng- 
hsh  ministry  wisely  conceded  the  demand,  saving  EngHsh  rights 
as  to  lands  actually  occupied  for  fifty  years.  The  result  of  the  arbi- 
tration thus  agreed  to  w'as  on  the  whole  favorable  to  the  territorial 
claims  of  British  Guiana.  The  decision  was  pronounced  October  3, 
1899.  The  constitution  of  Trinidad  as  a  Crown  colony  has  not  been 
changed ;  but  it  has  already  been  found  necessary  to  modify  the  old 
Dutch  constitution  of  Guiana  by  adding  to  the  old  Court  of  Policy, 
as  the  legislative  council  is  called,  a  certain  number  of  elected  repre- 
sentatives, who  have  a  voice  in  the  grant  and  disposal  of  taxes.  The 
Court  of  Policy  consists  of  seven  official  and  eight  elective  members. 
To  these  are  added  six  financial  representatives  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple, making  up  the  "  combined  court,"  which  has  control  of  the 
financial  aflfairs  of  the  colony.  The  Roman-Dutch  law  still  prevails 
in  civil  cases. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  sugar  industry  of  the  West 
Indies  has  suffered  further  disaster.  In  the  period  1885- 1896  the 
value  of  sugar  exported  decreased  by  nearly  one-fourth  and  gen- 
eral bankruptcy  was  threatened.  A  royal  commission,  appointed 
in  1896,  made  a  careful  investigation  and  reported  that  the  sugar 
industry  in  these  colonies  was  in  danger  of  great  reduction  and  in 
some  cases  of  extinction  from  the  competition  of  beet  sugar,  pro- 
duced under  the  stimulus  of  national  bounties  and  protective  duties, 
that  the  well-being  of  the  laboring  class  and  the  ability  of  the  col- 
onies to  meet  their  own  expenses  of  government  were  seriously 
threatened.  The  commission  found  it  impracticable  for  England 
to  impose  retaliatory  duties  upon  bounty-aided  sugar,  but  recom- 
mended other  measures  of  relief.  Among  them  the  development  of 
the  fruit  trade  with  New  York  and  London,  the  settlement  of 
laborers  upon  their  own  land,  improved  means  of  communication, 
and  the  encouragement  of  emigration.  This  programme  in  its 
general  outlines  was  adopted,  advances  of  663,000/,  to  the  colonial 
governments  were  authorized  by  the  imperial  parliament  in  1899; 
250,000/.  was  granted  in  1902-1903  in  aid  of  the  sugar  industry,  and 
a  subsidy  of  25.000/.  for  lines  of  steamers  to  Canada  and  Great 
Britain.  Thus  the  principle  of  free  trade  has  been  departed  from 
in  tlie  case  of  the  British  West  Indies,  and  a  sinking  industry  has 
received  direct  and  indirect  assistance  from  the  imperial  treasury. 
What  success  the  new  policy  is  to  have  is  uncertain.  The  Ameri- 
can conquest  of  Porto  Rico  and  the  favorable  commc:':::.!  relations 


BRITISH     D  K  P  E  N  D  E  N  C  I  E  S  249 

1800   19  lO 

of  Cuba  with  the  United  States  put  the  British  islands  at  a  disad- 
vantage in  their  best  and  nearest  market.  The  planters  distrust 
the  relief  measures  and  think  that  nothing-  will  avail  but  retaliatory 
duties  on  bounty-aided  beet  sugar  or  admission  to  the  American 
market  on  the  most  favorable  terms.  As  there  seems  to  be  no  hope 
of  the  former,  many  planters  have  expressed  a  desire  for  annexa- 
tion to  the  United  States,  The  present  condition  of  the  British 
West  Indies  affords  a  great  contrast  to  the  artificial  prosperity  of 
the  eighteentli  century.  Of  their  population  of  less  than  two  mil- 
lions, a  small  and  decreasing  proportion  is  white;  their  trade  with 
England  is  comparatively  insignificant,  and  their  government  has 
become  a  charge  upon  the  imperial  treasury. 

The  Bermudas  and  the  Falkland  Islands  make  up  with  the 
\\"est  Indies  the  sum  of  the  British  colonies  on  the  American  coast. 
The  Bermudas,  so  named  from  their  Spanish  discoverer,  a  cluster 
of  three  hundred  islands,  most  of  which  arc  barren  and  uninhabited 
rocks,  are  among  the  oldest  of  the  ICnglish  colonies,  possession 
having  been  taken  of  them  in  1609  by  Sir  George  Somers,  who  was 
cast  upon  them  on  his  voyage  to  y\nierica.  Somers  made  his  way 
to  the  continent  on  a  rough  boat  which  he  had  built  out  of  Ber- 
mudan  cedar-w(^od ;  and  a  year  or  two  afterward  the  English  took 
possession  of  the  islands,  which  are  in  fact  the  relics  of  tlie  old 
North  American  colonial  possessions  of  Great  Britain,  just  as  the 
Channel  Islands  are  the  relics  (^f  its  l*>ench  jiossessions.  Shakes- 
peare mentions  tlie  "  still-vexed  Bemiootlics."  and  Waller,  who 
once  ]i\"cd  here,  wrote  a  curious  and  amusing  jioem.  minutely  de- 
scribing the  islands  and  tlieir  products.  Before  American  inde- 
pendence they  were  of  importance  as  attording  a  conxcnicnt  naval 
station,  and  since  tliat  time  their  importance  in  tliis  respect  has  of 
course  increased.  P)Ut  tliey  arc  not  a  colony  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  word,  ihougli  th.e  inlialiitant^  lia\"e  ever  since  1620  had 
a  reprcsentati\e  govcnimcnt.  Hie  scitlcnieni  of  the  Ealkland 
Islands  is  more  modern.  'I"he_\'  lie  in  an  ungcnial  climate  oil  the 
southern  extrcmitv  of  America:  and  ihongli  they  were  disco\-ered 
at  the  end  of  tlie  sixteenth  century,  no  nation  thought  them  wortli 
occupation  until  they  became,  about  a  century  ago,  important  as 
stations  for  carrving  on  the  whale  fishery.  The  h^rcnch  <at  one  time 
tried  to  coloni;'e  tlieni;  hut  the  final  dispuie  concerning  them  arose 
between  fjigland  and  Sp;iiii.  Tiic  Ihaeiios  A}'reans  at  one  time 
made  a  ^^liow  of  entering  u])on  tlien.i  as  the  Iieirs  oi  the  okl  Spanish 


250  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

empire  in  these  parts,  but  they  could  make  nothing  of  the  place, 
and  in  1833  the  English  established  an  organized  government. 
Since  the  growth  of  commercial  intercourse  between  Europe  and 
the  ports  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Ecuador,  the  Falklands  have  f^reatly 
risen  in  importance  as  a  coaling  and  victualing  station  for  the  Pa- 
cific, and  in  this  respect  they  have  begun  to  compete  with  the  port 
of  Rio  Janeiro.  The  soil,  though  reduced  by  cold  wnnds  to  what 
seems  a  barren  heath,  has  been  found  well  adapted  for  sheep  farm- 
ing: and  the  port  of  Stanley  now  sends  large  quantities  of  wool, 
as  well  as  other  raw  produce,  to  the  English  market.  The  Falk- 
lands have  never  been  any  other  than  a  Crown  government. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  made  an  end  of  the  rivalry  of  France 
to  the  English  power  in  India.  During  the  wars  of  the  American 
and  French  revolutions  France  attempted  without  success  to  rees- 
tablish her  dominion  there,  but  the  only  result  was  that  England 
was  left  without  a  European  competitor  in  the  peninsula.  The 
native  states  were  incapable  of  firm  and  just  governm.ent,  and  the 
inevitable  result  has  been  that  English  authority  has  spread  over 
the  whole  country  and  has  come  to  be  exercised  directly  by  gov- 
ernment agents  instead  of  through  the  East  India  Company.  The 
w^onderful  story  of  the  growth  and  organization  of  British  rule 
extending  from  the  borders  of  Persia  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
and  including  several  outlying  islands  and  military  posts,  is  well 
worth  detail  consideration,  but  we  here  may  only  mention  briefly 
a  few  of  the  British  possessions  in  this  region  outside  of  India 
proper. 

Some  important  acquisitions  w'hich  have  been  made  in  the 
East  stand  on  the  borderland  between  Indian  and  Colonial  history, 
which  it  is  not  even  now  easy  to  separate  by  a  rigid  line.  We  have 
seen  how  the  wars  of  the  revolution  put  England  in  possession  of 
the  Dntcl)  settlements  on  the  Island  of  Ceylon  and  of  the  French 
colony  of  ^^lauritius.  England  would  perhaps  not  have  taken  them 
but  for  the  grov.'ing  importance  of  her  empire  in  India;  but  tliey 
do  not  l)elong  to  Indian  history,  neither  of  them  having  ever  per- 
manently passed  into  the  hands  of  the  East  India  Company,  or  hav- 
ing any  connection  with  the  Indian  Government.  Ceylon  was 
indeed  soon  after  its  capture  annexed  to  the  presidency  of  Aladras. 
but  in  I  Sot  it  \vas  erected  into  a  separate  colony.  The  Portuguese 
and  Dutch  lind  rjnly  possessed  the  coasts,  but  the  English  y-  on  de- 
stroyed  the  barbarous  kingdom  of    Candy  and  made  thciriselves 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  251 

1800  1910 

masters  of  the  whole  of  the  island.  Having-  abundance  of  rich 
land  lying-  vacant,  which  the  Crown  has  sold  at  a  moderate  price, 
and  plenty  of  native  labor,  it  has  since  attracted  English  capital  to 
a  great  amount,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  sugar  and  coffee. 
It  has  always  remained  a  Crown  colony,  though  not  of  the  strictest 
kind,  having  a  legislative  council  of  seventeen  members,  of  whom 
nine  are  officials  and  eight  are  nominated  by  the  Crown  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  different  races  and  classes  in  the  community.  The 
population  in  1901  numbered  3.578,333,  and  of  these  only  9509 
were  Europeans.  The  harbors  of  Trincomalee,  on  the  east  coast, 
and  Colombo,  on  the  west,  are  strongly  fortified.  The  former  is 
the  headquarters  of  the  British  East  Indian  fleet.  The  colony  ex- 
ports large  quantities  of  tea  and  other  tropical  products.  The  Mal- 
dlve  Islands,  lying  500  miles  to  the  westward,  are  tributary  to  the 
Ceylon  government,  though  ruled  by  a  native  sultan.  They  have 
a  population  of  30,000. 

The  further  extension  of  the  British  possessions  in  the  East, 
including  the  occupation  of  t!ie  Straits  Settlements,  properly  be- 
longs to  the  history  of  British  India.  ^Malacca,  the  chief  port  on 
the  Straits  which  lead  to  the  Indian  archipelago,  had  been,  as  we 
have  seen,  an  important  possession  of  the  Portuguese  until  they 
were  driven  from  it  by  the  Dutch.  The  English  in  1795  took  it 
from  the  Dutch,  and  after  tlie  war  the  Dutch  formally  ceded  it  to 
England.  The  English  were  afterward  obliged  to  take  possession 
of  a  large  tract  of  this  coast,  by  the  name  of  British  Burmah,  and 
they  fixed  on  the  island  of  Singapore,  at  the  south  end  of  the  ]\Ialay 
peninsula,  to  be  the  commercial  center  of  their  new  acquisition. 
Sir  Stamt\)rd  Raffles  took  possession  of  Singapore  in  1819,  and  in 
half  a  century  the  settlement  l:ad  grown  to  be  the  most  important 
in  the  eastern  seas.  Tlie  iici^iil^oring  island  of  Penang  had  long 
l)cen  held  bv  the  East  Ir.ilia  Company,  and  in  1824  the  district  of 
^Malacca  was  ac{|uirccl  ivniw  the  1  )utcli  in  exchange  fur  the  English 
settlements  iu  Sumatr-;.  Tiiesc  three  ])'.)ssessit'iis  make  up  the 
Straits  Scttlemonts.  wi'.Ii  a  jjoijiilation  in  190:  of  572,249,  and  a 
\<ast  trade  centered  ac  Si:i,';ap(n-e.  In  1867  they  were  made  inde- 
pendent (^f  the  Iniiian  gDvcrnnient  and  organized  as  a  Crown  col- 
cmy,  under  the  a(lniini>i:":iti' 'U  c>f  ;i  governor,  an  executive  council 
and  a  legislative  Ci-niicii  Hi-:(!e  r.p  of  nine  ohicial  and  seven  unoiU- 
cial  ineitibvTS,  \]\y  r;,u:'^l  hy  ihc  l  r^^wn  aiid  t\vi>  by  the  (.■l:;;ai!jcrs 
wf  commerce  of  S:i:g;q)ore  and  i'cnang.     In  the  last  ([uartc:"  of  ihr 


252  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

nineteenth  century  the  protection  of  Great  Britain  was  gradually 
extended  over  the  independent  native  states  of  the  peninsula. 
These  are  united  as  the  Federated  Malay  States  under  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  Straits  Settlements  as  high  commissioner.  Each 
state  is  governed  by  a  state  council  made  up  of  native  authorities 
and  British  officials  under  the  advice  of  a  British  resident.  The 
population  of  these  states  in  1901  was  678.595,  of  whom  1422 
were  Europeans  and  Americans.  The  state  of  Sohor,  at  the  south- 
em  end  of  the  peninsula,  with  an  estimated  population  of  200,000, 
is  under  British  control  in  respect  to  its  foreign  relations,  but  is 
governed  by  a  native  sultan.  Other  dependencies  of  the  Straits 
Settlements  are  the  Cocos  or  Keeling  Islands,  1200  miles  south- 
west of  Singapore,  population  698;  and  Christmas  Island,  700 
miles  further  east,  population  558.  The  chief  productions  of  the 
]\Ialay  peninsula  are  pepper,  sugar,  rice,  tapioca,  tea,  coffee,  gutta 
percha,  timber,  gold,  and  tin.  Christmas  Island  exports  large 
quantities  of  phosphate. 

The  history  of  another  Asiatic  settlement  takes  us  back  to  the 
days  of  Albuquerque.  That  great  general  had  been  repulsed  by 
the  Turks  from  the  flourishing  port  of  Aden ;  and  under  their  rule 
the  place  lost  all  its  trade,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  the  route 
to  India  round  the  Cape,  and  fell  into  decay.  The  Turks  were 
expelled  in  the  eighteenth  contury,  and  the  place  fell  into  the 
hands  of  hostile  Arabs.  An  English  Indiaman  was  wrecked 
near  the  town  in  1837,  and  the  Arabs  plundered  the  cargo  and 
maltreated  the  crew  and  passengers.  The  East  India  Company 
had  for  some  time  cast  envious  eyes  upon  the  spot,  and  they 
now  took  possession  of  it.  Aden  had  been  a  very  important 
place  in  ante-colonial  times.  It  now  recovered  its  prosperity, 
and  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  it  has  become  one  of 
the  first  commercial  stations  in  the  world.  From  a  wretched 
Arab  village  Aden  has  become  a  city  of  40.000  inliabitants,  and  it 
lias  been  made  almost  as  impregnable  as  Gibraltar  itself.  Its  cliief 
importance  is  as  a  military,  naval,  and  coaling  station  on  tlie  route 
to  India.  It  occupies  a  peninsula  100  miles  east  of  the  Straits  of 
Bab-el-j\Tan(leb,  with  a  small  adjoining  territory  on  tlie  mainland. 
The  Island  of  I'erim  at  tlie  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  Kuria 
^^luria  Islands  off  tlie  coast  of  Arabia  are  dependent  on  it.  Aden  is 
under  the  govemnir-nt  of  Br)mbay  and  is  ruled  by  a  political  resi- 
dent.    The  l>],'ir.l  -  f  S('kotr,-t.  off  t1ie  African  coast,  ab(Mit  ^00  mile'; 


iJ  R  1  T  1  S  11     D  E  r  E  N  I)  E  N  C  I  E  S  25^ 

180O    1910 

east  of  Aden,  with  a  population  of  about  12,000,  came  under  Brit- 
ish protection  by  treaty  with  the  Sultan  in  1876.  Otlier  outposts  of 
India  are:  the  Jialircin  Islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  population 
22,000 — a  British  protccUn-atc  since  1867:  the  Laccadive  Islands, 
200  miles  oti'  the  Malabar  coast,  population  in  189T,  14.000;  the 
Andaman  Islands,  in  the  l)ay  of  Bengal,  340  miles  north  and  west 
of  Sumatra,  and  the  Nicohar  Islands,  about  midway  between  the  An- 
damans  and  Sumatra.  I'he  Andamans  are  used  as  a  penal  settlement 
by  the  Indian  Government.  The  two  groups  have  a  population  of 
25,000.  and  are  governed  by  a  chief  commissioner  from  India. 

The  British  possessions  in  the  ^Fediterranean  deserve  mention 
here,  as  they  are  chiefly  important  as  military  and  naval  stations 
on  the  route  to  India.  Gibraltar,  a  rocky  promontory  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Spain,  commanding  the  entrance  to  the  great 
midland  sea,  was  sci/.cd  August  4,  1704,  by  a  detachment  of  Brit- 
ish sailors  from  tlie  fleet  under  Admiral  Rookc.  A  Spanish  at- 
tempt to  reca])ture  it  in  t 704- 1705  failed.  By  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1713  England  retained  the  fortress.  The  Spaniards,  after  an- 
other unsuccessful  siege,  erected  strong  fortitied  lines  across  the 
neck  of  land  in  1729.  thus  cutting  it  off  from  the  mainland.  Dur- 
ing the  War  of  the  American  Revolution  they  made  their  last 
great  attempt  to  regain  it,  but  the  grand  attack  of  September  13, 
17S2,  in  which  their  three  years'  siege  culminated,  was  beaten  off 
by  the  English.  ^Nfalta,  an  island  fifty-eight  miles  south  of  Sicily, 
was  seized  b\'  Xapoleon  on  his  way  to  Egypt  in  ]\Iay,  179S,  and 
garrisoned  by  4000  troops,  wlio  were  soon  blockaded  by  an  English 
deet  and  compelled  to  surrender  in  vSeptember.  iSoo.  At  the  Peace 
of  Amiens,  in  iMarch.  1802,  England  promised  to  restore  ]\Ialta 
to  its  former  ov.iiers,  t!ie  Knights  of  St.  John,  but  refused  to  ful- 
illl  this  stipulation,  which  was  one  of  the  groiuids  for  the  renewal  of 
the  war  in  May,  1803.  At  the  I'eace  of  Paris  in  1814  England  re- 
tained the  island.  Cyprus  was  accpiircd  from  Turkey  in  1878.  At 
the  end  of  the  Russo-Turkish  \\";ir  in  that  year  tlie  Treaty  of  San 
Stci)liano  was  supcfsedcti  l)y  that  of  lierlin,  signed  July  13.  On  June 
4  luigland.  h\'  a  secret  treaty  with  Turkey,  secured  the  promise  of 
certain  reforms  in  Asia  Mini)r  and  in  return  guaranteed  the  Turkish 
possessions  in  Asia,  receiving  Cyprus  for  a  military  and  naval  sta- 
tion as  a  means  t^f  enforcing  the  gu;iranty  and  a  pledge  for  the  ex- 
ecution of  tlie  ])romi>ed  reforms.  The  i-land  was  to  be  regarded  as 
an  integral  pa.rt  ^^i  the  Turki-11  empire,  and  tlie  surplus  revenue  was 


254  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  laio 

to  go  to  the  Sultan,  The  consent  of  Russia  and  Germany  to  this 
arrangement  was  obtained  when  the  treaty  was  signed.  French 
opposition  was  bought  off  by  an  agreement  giving  France  a  free 
hand  in  Tunis.  Gibraltar  is  under  a  governor  and  commander 
in  chief  w^ho  combines  in  himself  all  governmental  and  legislative 
powers.  The  area  of  the  colony  is  less  than  two  square  miles  and 
its  population  in  1901  was  25,110  in  addition  to  the  garrison.  Its 
only  importance  is  as  a  naval  base,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
heavily  fortified  and  elaborately  equipped.  Malta,  however,  is 
important  as  a  colony  aside  from  its  strategic  value.  Its  area,  in- 
cluding the  neighboring  islands  of  Gozo  and  Camino,  is  117  square 
miles,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  188. 141.  The  government  is 
partially  representative,  the  legislative  council  having  six  official 
and  thirteen  elected  members,  but  in  case  of  necessity  legislation 
may  be  enacted  by  executive  order,  and  this  power  has  been  re- 
cently used  because  of  a  legislative  deadlock  on  the  language  ques- 
tion. Italian  is  the  official  language  of  the  courts,  and  in  the 
schools  parents  may  elect  for  their  children  either  Italian  or  Eng- 
lish. Agriculture  is  the  main  industry,  especially  the  raising  of 
small  fruits  and  grain.  The  importance  of  Malta  as  a  naval  base 
has  declined  because  of  the  small  size  of  its  harbor.  The  island 
of  Cyprus,  lying  in  the  ?^Tediterranean  Sea  near  its  northeastern 
angle,  and  forty-one  miles  from  the  coast  of  Syria,  has  an  area 
of  3584  square  miles,  and  in  1901  its  population  was  232,022.  Its 
chief  products  are  grain,  olives,  and  fruits.  The  administration  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  British  high  commissioner,  who  has  the  powers 
of  a  colonial  governor.  The  legislative  council  contains  six  official 
and  twelve  elected  members,  of  whom  three  are  chosen  by  ]\Io- 
hammedan  voters  and  nine  by  other  voters.  The  English  judges 
in  the  lower  courts  are  associated  with  native  judges,  both  Chris- 
tian and  Mohammendan.  Under  the  terms  ni  the  Treaty  of  1878 
92.800/.  ($464,000)  are  paid  annually  to  Turkey. 

Of  the  English  ])ossessions  in  the  Pacilic  the  self-governhig 
colonies  of  Australasia  have  already  been  dealt  with.  The  Crown 
colonies  remain  to  be  considered.  A  settlement,  tributary  to  the 
trade  of  Singapore,  was  made  in  1846  by  Sir  James  Brooke,  on 
the  Island  of  Labuan,  off  the  coast  of  Borneo.  Besides  being 
governor  of  the  Britisli  colony  of  Labuan.  Sir  James  also  became 
Rajah  of  the  neighboring  district  of  Sarawak,  on  the  main 
land  of  Borneo,  and  his  government  here  rescued  the  poor  natives 


B  11 1  T  I  S  II     DEPENDENCIES  2«6 

1800  1910 

from  the  wretched  and  defenseless  condition  into  which  they 
had  fallen.  Brooke's  deeds  in  Borneo  form  one  of  the  most  en- 
couraging pages  of  history.  Soon  before  he  died  he  offered  his 
rajahship  to  the  English  Government,  who  refused  it,  and  he 
was  succeeded  in  it  by  his  nephew  Charles  in  i868.  The  govern- 
ment was  no  doubt  right  in  not  accepting  Brooke's  offer.  The 
United  States  have  also  refused  a  proposed  concession  to  them  by 
one  of  the  sultans  of  Borneo,  though  American  citizens,  fired  by 
the  example  of  Brooke,  have  sometimes  hoisted  the  Stars  and 
Stripes  on  its  shores.  In  1877  certain  English  subjects  obtained 
from  native  chiefs  land  cessions  in  Xorth  Borneo.  These  were 
transferred  to  the  British  North  Borneo  Company,  chartered  in 
1882.  In  1888  a  formal  British  protectorate  was  proclaimed,  and 
two  years  later  Labuan  was  placed  under  the  government  of  the 
company.  The  governor  of  the  territory  is  appointed  by  the  com- 
pany subject  to  the  approval  of  the  colonial  secretary.  British 
North  Borneo  contains  an  area  of  about  30.000  scjuare  miles  and 
a  population  of  200.000.  A  nourishing  trade  in  limlK-r  and  tropical 
products  is  carried  on  through  Singapore.  In  [888  England  pro- 
claimed a  protectorate  over  Sarawak,  area  50,oo<')  square  miles, 
population  600,000;  and  Brunei,  area  15,000  scjuare  miles,  popu- 
lation 45,000.  Sarawak  is  under  Rajah  Sir  Charles  Brooke,  and 
Brunei  under  a  native  sultan.  These  possessions  together  occupy 
the  entire  northern  and  northwestern  pcTrtion  of  the  great  island. 
The  southern  and  eastern  part  is  held  by  the  iJutcli. 

Another  insular  commercial  colony  was  formed  in  1841,  at 
the  close  of  the  Opium  War  with  China,  on  the  island  of  Hong- 
Kong,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  Rixer.  by  tlie  name  of 
A'ictoria.  Hong-Kong  is  Cireat  l>ritain"s  '"  I^astcrn  Gibraltar," 
,'iii  impt)rtant  niilitar\'  and  na\al  station,  and  tlie  center  of  a 
large  commerce  with  China  and  Japan.  T'le  ci\il  population 
in  1901  was  2b'3,905.  oi  whom  (1431  were  luiropeans  and  Amer- 
ic:ins.  There  is  also  an  imperial  garriMUi  of  3200  and  Ilong- 
Kong  is  the  headquarters  of  the  liritish  China  scpiadrcju.  The  gov- 
ernmcnt  is  carried  on  by  a  goxernor  and  exccuti\e  council.  There  is 
also  a  legislative  council  com])osed  ot  six  oflicial  and  six  nominatetl 
unoflieial  members,  wiiereof  two  are  Chinese.  In  1898  England 
leased  from  China  for  ninety-nine  }ears  a  tract  of  376  square  miles 
(Ml  the  mainland,  with  a  l_diine-e  pi.'piilation  of  k^o.ock^.  In  the 
^anle  \ear.   following"  ilie  lea.-c  "f   ['on  Arthur  [>>  Russia.   Paiirland 


256  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

leased  from  China  the  port  and  bay  of  Wei-hai-wei,  on  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  Straits  of  Pe-chi-li,  for  so  long  a  period  as  Russia 
remains  in  possession  of  Port  Arthur.  The  colony  is  governed  by 
a  commissioner  and  has  an  area  of  285  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of   123,000. 

England  has  a  few  other  possessions  in  the  Pacific.  The  as- 
sumption of  a  protectorate  over  the  southeastern  portion  of  New 
Guinea  in  1884  has  already  been  narrated  in  the  chapter  on  Austra- 
lia. It  was  made  a  Crown  colony  in  1888  and  is  administered  by 
the  Australian  Commonwealth  which  provides  tlie  expenses  of  gov- 
ernment. British  New  Guinea  has  an  area  of  90,540  square  miles, 
a  population  of  350,000,  of  whom  250  are  Europeans.  It  has 
abundant  natural  resources  for  the  production  of  tropical  goods. 
British  influence  in  the  Fiji  Islands  dates  from  the  coming  of 
Wesleyan  missionaries  in  1835.  A  native  request  for  British 
protection  was  denied  in  1858,  but  Australian  sentiment  in  favor 
of  annexing  the  group  to  the  empire  became  too  strong  to  be  re- 
sisted, and  in  1874  tliis  was  accomplished  by  treaty  with  the 
natives.  The  colony  is  under  a  governor  (who  is  also  high  com- 
missioner for  the  western  Pacific)  and  a  legislative  council  com- 
posed of  six  official  and  six  unofficial  members  nominated  by  the 
Crown.  The  natives  are  controlled  through  their  local  chiefs. 
There  are  200  islands  in  the  group  (80  inhabited),  with  an  area 
of  8045  square  miles  and  a  population  in  1901  of  117,870,  whereof 
2447  were  Europeans,  17.105  Indians,  and  04,397  Eijians.  The 
islands  export  sugar  and  other  tropical  products.  The  Tonga  or 
I'riendly  Islands  were  declared  to  be  under  British  protection  in 
1899.  They  are  go\erned  by  a  king  and  an  assembly  of  nobles 
and  elected  representatives  of  the  people.  The  islands  have  an  area 
of  390  square  miles  and  a  population  of  18.959.  nearly  all  natives. 
Numerous  other  islands  in  the  possession  or  under  the  protection  of 
I^ngland  arc  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  high  commissioner  for  the 
Avestern  TaciHc. 

The  African  colonies  of  Great  Ih-itain  arc  numerous  and  im- 
portant. W'e  have  already  considered  the  great  self-governing 
.South  Africrni  grou])  of  mixed  luiglish  and  Dutch  nationality,  and 
have  space  here  for  only  a  brief  enumeration  and  description  of 
those  not  already  dealt  with. 

In  British  colonial  historv  we  have  an  odd  exemplification  (jf 
the  saying  that  "  the  In^l  shall  be  first,  and  the  Hrst  shall  be  last." 


B  11 1  II  S  11     DEPENDENCIES 


1800-1910 


257 


The  first  place  in  importance  is  occupied,  as  we  have  seen,  by  col- 
onies of  very  late  growth.  The  last  is  occupied  by  some  petty 
settlements  on  the  West  African  Coast,  which  date  from  the  time 
of  Queen  Elizabeth.  These  settlements  lie  in  four  groups  on  the 
coast.  Two  of  them,  those  on  the  Gambia  River  and  the  Gold 
Coast,  belong  to  the  history  of  the  slave  trade,  having  formerly  been 


llie  marts  where  .-laves  were  purchased  by  i!k'  I'jir^hVli  slavers. 
The  other  two.  those  of  Sierra  l.eom'  aiul  L:i;..^'os.  arc  onncctcil 
with  its  abolition:  the  fdrmer.  as  we  ha\-e  already  seen,  having;' 
been  founded  as  a  refuge  for  its  rescued  \ictiriis,  and  the  latter  in 
i86j.  as  a  station  for  more  C(>m])icte]_\'  de.-tro\i;io-  it.  The  old 
West  African  Settlements  were  si-on  snpei'seded  by  tiic  Xew 
World  as  a  source  of  the  gold  su|)i)l_\-  of  Iviirope.  and  they  lost  most 
of  their  importance  witli  the  riboliti()n  of  the  slave  trade.  Tlic 
African  Compaiiw  to  wbicli  lIic}'  were  alwax's  .-ubject.  wa-  ruine<! 


258  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-191O 

in  consequence,  and  in  1807  the  Crown  took  possession  of  them 
in  order  to  make  sure  that  the  slave  trade  ceased.  At  first  the 
three  groups  of  settlements  had  separate  governments.  In  1821 
they  were  united,  but  separated  again  in  1842.  In  1866,  following 
the  same  policy  as  in  the  West  Indies,  they  were  again  placed  under 
one  government  fixed  at  Sierra  Leone.  But  this  arrangement 
lasted  only  until  1874.  At  present  they  are  separately  administered. 
The  British  dominion  on  the  Gold  Coast  was  extended  by  purchase 
of  the  slave  trading  posts  of  the  Dutch  and  the  Danes  and  by  wars 
against  Ashanti,  resulting  in  a  protectorate  over  that  country  in 
1896,  and  its  annexation  together  with  the  so-called  Northern 
Territories  in  190 1.  The  governor  of  the  Gold  Coast  administers 
Ashanti  as  a  separate  possession.  The  small  colony  of  Gambia, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  that  name,  has  been  in  like  manner 
extended  by  a  protectorate  over  the  neighboring  country,  with  an 
area  of  4500  square  miles  and  a  population  of  90,000.  The  area 
of  Lagos  colony  is  3460  square  miles,  of  the  Lagos  Protectorate 
25,450  square  miles,  with  a  total  population  of  1,500,000.  Sierra 
Leone  has  an  area  of  4000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  76,665. 
The  area  of  the  Sierra  Leone  protectorate  is  30,000  square  miles 
and  its  population  1,000,000.  The  Gold  Coast,  with  Ashanti  and 
the  Northern  Territories,  has  an  area  of  about  110,000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  nearly  2,000,000.  The  government  of 
each  of  tliese  colonies  is  of  the  strict  Crown  colony  type.  In  each 
the  governor  is  assisted  by  executive  and  legislative  councils  ap- 
pointed by  the  Crown.  Their  chief  products  are  tropical  goods 
and  gold,  their  soil  is  rich,  their  resources  are  being  systematically 
developed  by  railroads,  and  the  trade  is  in  a  satisfactory  condition. 
The  climate  effectually  precludes  European  settlement  on  any  large 
scale. 

From  Lagos  English  exploration,  trade  and  political  control 
spread  to  the  deha  of  the  Niger  and  upward  along  the  course  of 
that  great  river  until  the  region  of  French  inlluence  on  its  upper 
waters  was  reached.  The  National  African  Company,  created  in 
1882  to  develop  this  vast  region,  was  chartered  in  1886  as  the 
Royal  Niger  Company,  and  began  to  make  treaties  with  the  native 
tribes.  Ih-itisli  prutection  over  the  whole  country  was  proclaimed 
in  iiSbU  and  1887.  On  Jrmnary  r,  igoo,  the  company  surrendered 
it>  chancr  and  its  territories  came  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
imperial  gw\ernnk'iii.     The  tula!   iJriii.-,h  [josses.^iuns  in  this  region 


BR  IT  IS  II     Dl^rEXT)  i:  N  CIES  250 

180()    191() 

amount  to  400,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  estimated  at 
25,000,000,  composed  of  tribes  speaking  different  languages  anrl 
either  Mohammedan  or  Pagan  in  religi(3n.  There  are  two  gov- 
ernments. Northern  and  Southern  Nigeria,  each  under  the  control 
of  a  high  commissioner.  Justice  is  administered  by  English  and 
native  courts,  and  the  administrative  organization  of  the  country 
N'arics  with  the  development  of  the  several  tribes  and  their  dis::ance 
from  the  seat  of  government.  Native  military  forces  under  P>ritish 
officers  are  maintained,  and  strong  eft"orts  are  being  made  to  sup- 
press cannibalism  and  slave  raiding.  The  commercial  possil)ilities 
of  the  country  are  large,  but  they  await  development  by  railways, 
and  above  all  the  establishment  of  settled  order.  Another  British 
possession  on  the  western  coast  is  Walfish  Bay,  valuable  as  the  only 
good  national  harbor  in  Southwest  Africa,  and  much  coveted  by 
the  Germans  who  have  colonized  that  region.  Its  total  area  is  but 
430  square  miles.  It  was  made  a  British  protectorate  in  1878 
and  is  now  under  the  government  of  Cape  Colony. 

British  South  Africa,  including  Ca])e  Colony.  Natal,  and  the 
recently  conquered  Boer  states,  nov^-  kr.nwn  as-  the  Orange  l\iver 
Colony  and  the  Transvaal  Colony,  has  already  been  dealt  wiili. 
Other  possessions  in  this  region  are  Basutoland,  the  Becluianaland 
protectorate,  and  Swaziland.  The  former  lies  to  th.e  north  and  east 
of  Cape  Colony,  bounded  west  and  northwest  by  tlie  Orange  River 
Colony,  east  and  northeast  by  Natal.  It  has  a  fine  climate  and  is  weH 
watered,  but  European  settlement  is  jirohibited  in  the  interest  of 
the  natives,  who  numl)er  nbout  265.000.  The  area  of  tlie  country 
is  about  10,000  scjuare  miles.  It  was  annexed  to  the  Cape  Colonv 
in  1877.  but  was  given  a  separate  government  in  1884.  Jt  is  now 
governed  by  a  resident  commissioner  under  tlie  higli  cc^miiiissioner 
for  South  .\frica.  The  B.echuanaland  1 'roteciorale  sliould  not  be 
confused  Avith  B-cchuanalnud  ])n!]ier.  win'ch  was  a  scjxirate  Crown 
colony  until  annexed  to  Cape  I'olony  in  r8()5.  forming  tlie  most 
northern  portion  of  that  go\'eniment  and  Ijounded  on  the  east  bv 
the  Transvaal  colonv  ;r.id  on  tlie  north  l\v  tlie  Malopo  River.  'J'he 
protectorate  com|)rises  tlie  grea.t  arid  region  n.(^rth  of  the  river  and 
west  of  the  Transvaal,  streieln'ng  to  the  border  of  Gcrmrni  .South- 
west -Africa.  It  is  go\-crned  through  the  native  chiefs  bv  a  resi- 
dent commissioner  under  the  h.igli  commissi*  aier  for  Soutli  Africa.. 
Tlie  population  is  estimatcil  at  2(io.ooo.  Swaziland  lies  near  ilic 
southeastern  corner  of  the  Trans\-aal  colonv,  bv  which  it  is  Ixiuniled 


260  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

18001910 

on  the  north  and  west.  On  the  east  it  touches  the  territory  of 
Portugal  and  Natal  and  on  the  south  and  west  the  districts  for- 
merly the  most  southwesterly  in  the  Transvaal,  but  which  were 
transferred  to  Natal  in  1902.  The  area  of  Swaziland  is  about 
8300  square  miles,  and  its  population  70,000  natives  and  a  small 
number  of  whites.  It  was  formerly  administered  by  the  South 
African  Republic. 

The  beginnings  of  Rhodesia  have  been  narrated.  It  embraces 
an  immense  area  from  the  Transvaal  Colony  north  to  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, and  from  the  British  Central  African  Protectorate  and 
the  Portuguese  and  German  possessions  on  the  east  to  the  Congo 
Free  State  and  Portuguese  West  Africa  on  the  west,  including 
the  upper  course  of  the  Zambesi  River.  The  portion  north  of  the 
river  is  divided  into  Northeastern  and  Northwestern  Rhodesia. 
Both  are  administered  by  the  British  South  Africa  Company.  The 
former  contains  an  area  of  120,000  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  about  340,000.  Northwestern  Rhodesia  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Congo  Free  State,  west  by  Portuguese  West  Africa, 
south  by  the  Zambesi  and  German  Southwest  Africa,  and  east  by 
Northeastern  Rhodesia.  Both  provinces  are  rich  in  natural  re- 
sources, but  their  European  population  is  insignificant  in  number. 
It  is  otherwise  with  Southern  Rhodesia,  which  stretches  southward 
from  the  Zambesi  to  the  borders  of  the  Transvaal  colony.  Here 
there  is  a  European  population  of  about  12,000  and  500,000 
natives.  The  government  is  under  the  joint  control  of  the  com- 
pany and  the  imperial  government.  There  is  an  administrator  for 
the  company  and  a  resident  commissioner  appointed  by  the  colonial 
secretary.  The  executive  council  is  composed  of  the  resident 
commissioner  and  four  or  more  appointees  of  the  company  ap- 
proved by  the  colonial  secretary.  The  legislative  council,  over 
which  the  administrator  presides,  consists  of  the  resident  commis- 
sioner, seven  appointees  of  the  company  approved  by  the  colonial 
secretary,  and  seven  representatives  elected  by  tlie  registered 
voters.  Its  ordinances  have  the  force  of  law  wlien  approved  by  the 
high  commissioner  for  South  Africa,  but  may  be  disallowed  within 
a  year  by  the  colonial  secretary.  Judges  of  the  high  court  are 
appointed  by  the  colonial  secretary  on  the  nomination  of  the  com- 
pany. The  sale  of  arms  and  liquor  to  natives  is  severely  restricted, 
and  land  is  reserved  for  triljal  settlements  subject  to  the  mineral 
rights  of  tlie  company.     The  country  is  divided  into  tlie  two  prov- 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  261 

1800-1910 

iiices  of  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland.  Both  are  rich  in  gold 
and  other  minerals,  including  coal.  There  is  through  railway  com- 
munication from  Victoria  Falls  on  the  Zambesi  to  Cape  Town  and 
to  Beira  on  the  coast  of  Portuguese  luist  Africa.  A  line  is  under 
construction  north  of  the  Zambesi  and  its  extension  to  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika is  projected.  Among  the  instruments  of  modern  civili- 
zation at  the  command  of  this  new  colony  are  telegraphs,  tele- 
phones, newspapers,  hospitals,  public  libraries,  schools,  churches, 
banks,  and  hotels.  The  total  area  of  all  Rhodesia  is  about  750,000 
square  miles.  The  British  Central  African  Prcjtcctorate  lies  along 
the  w-estern  shore  of  Lake  Xyassa  and  the  valley  of  the  Shire  River, 
by  which  the  waters  of  the  lake  discharge  into  tlie  Zambesi.  It 
lies  east  of  northeastern  Rhodesia  and  extends  southward  like 
a  wedge  into  Portuguese  East  Africa.  It  has  an  area  of  42,217 
and  a  population  of  900,000,  of  whom  but  450  are  Europeans. 
The  government  is  administered  by  a  commissioner  under  the 
British  Foreign  Office.  English  enterprise  in  this  region  began 
with  the  missionary  labors  of  Livingstone. 

From  tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  northward  to  Lake  Tanganyika 
the  British  dominion  stretches  for  2000  miles  without  a  break. 
Here  it  is  interrupted  by  the  territories  of  German  East  Africa 
on  the  east  of  the  lake  and  tlie  Congo  Free  State  on  the  western 
shore.  It  begins  again  in  L'ganda.  500  miles  furtlier  north,  and 
extends  2300  miles  to  tlie  mouth  of  the  Nile.  Tlie  Uganda  Pro- 
tectorate cc/inprises  tlie  country  between  the  great  lakes  at  the 
sources  of  the  Nile,  including  the  northern  shores  of  Victoria 
Nyaiiza  and  the  upper  course  of  the  Nile,  tlience  northward  to 
latitude  of  5'.  The  total  area  of  80,000  s(juare  miles  is  divided 
into  five  provinces,  of  which  the  kingdom  vi  Cganda  is  one.  The 
latter  is  directly  administered  by  British  officers,  but  for  the  most 
part  tlie  nati\e.-^  of  the  jirdtectorate.  numbering  4.000.000.  are  con- 
trolled thrt)ugli  their  chiefs.  l"he  luu'opeaii  jjopiilation  is  about 
300.  A  niihtar}-  force  of  4000  n;ui\e.<,  with  llritish  oflicers,  is 
maintained,  alsi.i  a  !i;i\-al  force  o\  .-learners  and  s.ailing  \'essels. 
l-'ruiii  ( iondi 'lo  irci  in  ilie  north  ihicre  i>  coninumicatiMn  b\'  steamers 
with  Khartum.  The  i)rotectorate  is  under  tlie  government  of  a 
IJritish  commissioner.  I'^ast  of  Uganda,  stretching  southeast  to 
tlie  seacoast  and  b(.)nndied  on  the  south  by  (ierman  Fast  Africa, 
is  the  British  Fast  African  1 'n 'teciorate.  witli  an  area  ni  350.-- 
000  .--iinare  niile>  and   ;i   p^'pulaiion   of  4.()0().ono.      Ii    i:>  L;''-'\crned. 


262  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

18001910 

by  a  commissioner  and  is  divided  into  provinces,  each  under  a 
sub-commissioner.  The  European  population  is  insignificant  in 
numbers.  A  raihvay  was  completed  in  1901  from  Mombasa  on 
the  seacoast  to  Kisumu  on  Lake  Victoria.  The  protectorate  main- 
tains a  military  force  of  1400  men  and  1300  police.  The  Zanzibar 
Protectorate  includes  the  Island  of  Zanzibar,  off  the  coast  of  Ger- 
man East  Africa  (640  square  miles),  and  the  Island  of  Pemba 
(380  square  miles).  The  population  of  these  islands  is  about 
200,000.  During  the  minority  of  the  sultan  the  government  is  ad- 
ministered by  an  Englishman  as  prime  minister  and  regent.  The 
sultan  has  nominal  rights  of  sovereignty  over  the  coast  of  the 
British  East  Africa  Protectorate  and  certain  ports  on  the  coast  of 
Italian  Somaliland. 

North  of  Uganda  is  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  and  north  of 
the  Sudan  Egypt  itself,  nominally  a  dependency  of  Turkey,  but 
actually  under  British  control  since  1882.  A  British  financial 
adviser  controls  expenditure,  the  Egyptian  army  is  organized  under 
British  officers,  and  a  British  army  of  occupation  is  supported 
out  of  the  Egyptian  treasury.  This  British  control  of  Egypt  has 
long  excited  the  jealousy  of  other  powers,  especially  France,  but 
received  the  sanction  of  French  approval  by  the  Anglo-French 
treaty  signed  April  8,  1904.  The  English  administration,  in  spite 
of  great  obstacles,  has  restored  Egyptian  credit,  reorganized  the 
anny,  established  justice,  abolished  forced  labor,  carried  through 
grc.-.t  public  works  for  irrigation  and  other  purposes,  and  re- 
conquered the  Sudan.  The  latter  country  had  revolted  under  the 
^lahdi  in  1882,  but  was  reconquered  in  1898  by  Lord  Kitchener, 
the  sirdar  or  commander  in  chief  of  the  Egyptian  army.  The 
Sudan  is  under  the  joint  control  of  England  and  Egypt.  It 
extends  from  N.  lat.  5''  to  N.  lat.  22,"  about  1200  miles  along  tlie 
cour.-L-  of  the  Xile,  and  from  the  Red  Sea  and  Abyssinia  on  the 
east  incicHnitely  westward.  Kartum,  tlic  capital,  is  connected  by 
railway,  steanibuai,  and  telegraph  with  C:.'iro,  nnd  a  railway  is 
buildiiig  tnnu  Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea  to  Berber  on  the  Xile.  The 
area  of  the  country  is  a])Otit  950,000  square  miles  and  the  popula- 
tion 3,500,000.  The  Somali  Coast  Protectorate,  proclaimed  in 
1884,  embraces  68.000  square  miles  alorig  the  fiyLUhern  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Aden.  Tl  i-,  i'ounded  west  and  south  by  .Vbyssinia.  and  cast 
and  -jjnth  by  li;.i',iii  ."^oinah'knid.  The  ])')pu]ation  is  ahoul  5n(  ),Oi:»o, 
niusth/  Mohanmicchni,  and  British  autlv '!'it\'  i^5  not  \ct  ini]\'  cstab- 


BRITISH    1)  1 :  p  1-:  x  d  e  sci  i:  s  9.m 

1800   1910 

lished  in  the  interior.  The  country  is  administered  by  a  consul 
general. 

Besides  her  possessions  on  the  African  mainland,  England 
holds  several  importauL  islands  off  the  coast.  At  unequal  distances 
from  the  West  African  coast  lie  also  tlie  two  British  islands  of 
St  Helena  and  Ascension,  St.  Helena  was  taken  from  the  Dutch 
in  1673,  and  was  used  by  the  East  India  Company  as  a  victualing 
station;  the  only  historical  fact  connected  with  it  is  that  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  last  years  and  death  of  Bonaparte.  Ascension  Island 
was  taken  as  a  naval  station  by  the  English  during  Bonaparte's 
confinement,  and  has  been  occupied  as  such  ever  since.  To  guard 
against  all  possibility  of  Bonaparte's  escape,  the  English  also  seized 
and  fortified  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  three  rocky  islets  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  1200  miles  from  St.  Helena, 
and  1500  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  called  Tristan  da  Cunha, 
from  an  old  Portuguese  sailor  of  that  name.  The  small  com- 
munity which  formed  there  was  incapable  of  self-support.  They 
lived  on  supplies  from  whaling  vessels,  and  as  the  whales  suddenly 
forsook  the  South  Atlantic  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  removed 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1862.  A  handful  of  English  people, 
however,  who  have  become  attached  to  the  place,  still  prefer  to  live 
in  isolation  and  poverty  on  tliis  almost  barren  rock. 

The  island  of  Mauri tir,^.  lying  about  500  miles  ofif  the  east 
coast  of  ^Madagascar,  was  cnr.riucred  from  the  French  in  iSio. 
It  is  under  a  governor  and  a  council  of  twenty-seven,  ten  of  wr.om 
are  elected  by  the  people.  Th.c  planters,  who  are  mostly  of  I'rench 
descent,  care  but  little  abor.t  self-government.  During  the  century 
of  h^ench  occu]xilion  it  had  been  liule  more  than  a  naval  station,  and 
it  was  under  Englisli  Govorr.:r,iji":  that  it  became  important  as  a 
sugar  island.  The  most  important  date  in  ^Mauritian  h'<lory  is 
the  vear  1825.  The  i-1;(nd  had  h.ithcrio  been  classed  by  b'nglisli 
financiers  witli  the  lvd>i  Indies,  and  its  sugar,  like  thcir'^.  had  paid 
a  duty  of  ^ys.  per  cv/t.,  but  in  that  year  it  u-as  placed  on  the 
same  footing  as  the  West  Indies,  which  only  ]):iid  2~s.  per  cvt. 
A  large  influx  of  ]i;;nUers  immediately  fnllowedi.  and  tb.cre  was 
an  inexhaustible  sr.]i;.:\-  of  labor  at  liand  in  India.  The  area  of 
the  island  is  705  squ;irc  miles  and  llie  p.*puI;Ui(^n  in  igoi  was 
o/.T-o*^.^-  TogetlKT  with  ^Mauritius,  j'",ngl;;nd  :dso  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  Sc}"cb.elles.  Amiran:c.  and  sume  other  islands  ir. 
the  Indian  Ocean.     Cotton  has  been  planted  here,  and  Port  \'ic- 


264-  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-19IO 

toria,  on  the  largest  of  the  Seychelles,  has  a  magnificent  harbor, 
and  is  a  coaling  station.  These  islands  were  formerly  dependent 
on  Mauritius,  but  are  now  under  a  separate  governor,  with  a 
legislative  council  appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  total  area  of  the 
seventy- four  islands  in  this  colony  is  about  148  square  miles,  and  the 
population  by  the  census  of  1901  was  19,237. 

Having  thus  briefly  traced  the  history  of  all  the  British 
colonies,  both  dependent  and  independent,  since  the  French  Revo- 
lution, we  are  able  to  see  that  much  of  English  colonial  greatness 
is  due  to  the  successes  of  the  English  nation  in  the  wars  which 
followed  the  revolution.  Of  the  three  sets  of  colonies  which  wc 
have  classed  as  independent,  the  nucleus  of  one  important  group, 
the  South  African,  was  actually  acquired  in  those  wars,  and  the 
exhaustion  of  the  French  nation  in  those  wars  very  much  con- 
tributed to  the  peaceable  settlement  of  another  (the  Australian). 
Of  the  dependent  colonies  whose  history  has  been  traced  in  the 
present  chapter,  Trinidad,  Guiana,  Ceylon,  and  Mauritius  were 
also  actually  acquired  in  those  wars.  These  new  acquisitions  were, 
in  fact,  the  choicest  parts  of  the  whole  European  colonial  S3'stem, 
and  their  subsequent  prosperity  quite  justifies  the  judgment  of  the 
British  statesmen  of  18 14.  We  have  also  seen  how  the  decay 
of  the  V\'est  Indies  is  to  be  traced,  mainly  through  a  great  move- 
ment in  favor  of  free  trade,  but  partly  through  slave  emancipation, 
not  only  to  the  general  dawn  of  liberal  ideas  in  Europe  which 
marks  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  also  to  the 
rivalry  of  these  newly  acquired  colonies;  and  we  may  perhaps 
conclude  that  the  system  of  British  dependent  colonies  was  trans- 
formed, quite  as  much  as  any  of  the  independent  colonies,  by  th.e 
great  political  moAxments  which  belong  to  the  time  which  we  have 
named  "  the  half-century  of  Transition."  The  history  of  this 
section  of  colcMiies  also  well  illustrates  tlie  limits  within  which 
colonial  independence  seems  to  be  practicable.  Isolated  settlements 
necessarily  depend  for  defense  on  the  mother-country:  and  a  small 
and  impoverished  community,  sucli  as  several  now  are  in  the  West 
Indies,  clearly  does  well  not  to  aspire  to  an  independent  position. 
Where  the  great  mass  of  the  population  belongs  to  an  inferior  race, 
as  in  Ceylon  and  Guiana,  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  English 
settlers  to  reconcile  their  own  political  rights  with  those  of  that 
inferior  race,  who  are  e(|ua]ly  free  men  with  themselves;  it  there- 
fore seems  likely  that  dependent  colonies  will  always  exist,  and 


li  u  rr  I  s  II    D 1-:  v  i:  \  d  e  n  c  i  e  s  265 

1800   1910 

the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed  a  renewal  of 
colonization  of  this  character  by  many  of  the  great  powers  upon 
an  enormous  scale. 

England  maintains  her  vast  empire  at  an  annual  cost  of  about 
3,ooo,ooc^/.,  in  addition  to  maintaining  in  her  dependencies  an 
army  of  6-\(S35  men.  according  to  tlie  army  estimates  of  1902-1903. 
To  these  figures  should  be  added  the  European  army  in  India 
73.498  men.  For  the  same  year  the  colonies  contributed  397.000/. 
for  imperial  defense,  besides  large  contributions  from  India  and 
Egypt.  Canada  has  undertaken  the  whole  charge  of  her  defenses 
on  land  and  the  last  British  garrisons  left  the  country  in  May. 
1906.  So  far  as  possible  each  colony  is  required  to  bear  the 
expenses  of  its  own  government  and  police.  English  oversight 
of  colonial  affairs  was  at  an  early  date  exercised  by  the  privy 
council,  later  by  a  special  commission.  Under  Charles  TI.  a  new 
body  was  created  for  this  purpose  called  the  Council  of  Trade  and 
Plantations,  but  in  1674  the  business  was  transferred  to  a  com- 
mittee of  the  privy  council.  In  1696  the  Board  of  Trade  was  es- 
tablished to  collect  information  on  colonial  affairs,  but  without 
executive  power.  The  evil  results  of  this  divided  responsibility 
led  to  the  abolition  of  the  board  in  1782.  The  office  of  Secretary 
of  State  for  American  affairs,  which  had  been  created  in  1768, 
was  abolished  at  the  same  time.  Colonial  affairs  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  Sccretar_\'  of  State  for  War  until  1854.  when  the 
ofiice  of  Secretary  of  State  for  tlie  Colonies  was  created.  An 
independent  Board  of  Control  for  East  India,  established  in  1784. 
was  the  forerunner  of  tlie  Indian  oflice.  The  s'pirit  in  which  ques- 
tions concerning  tlie  colonies  were  dcdt  with  was  for  a  long  time 
reactionary  as  the  direct  result  (^f  American  indep/endence.  The  re- 
volt of  the  -American  colonics  was  th.ought  lo  be  due  to  democratic 
instiiutions.  anil  ever\-  effort  was  made  to  ])rc\ent  the  de\'elopment  of 
democracy  in  the  colonics  still  possessed  by  haigland  or  recent])- 
acquired.  When  lil)erali>ni  became  dominant  in  England  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  ceniin\\'.  self-government  was  fully  conceded 
to  the  more  ad\-anced  colonies,  and  in  some  c;ises  perhaps  conceded 
too  earlv.  but  many  of  liie  leaders  of  liberal  opinion  were  indif- 
ferent to  the  colonial  grc;une-s  (,f  the  countr_\-.  and  loid<ed  forward 
with  satisfaction  to  the  time  when  all  the  colonies  would  be  in- 
dependent and  1'jigiand  free  of  the  burtien  of  caring  for  tliem. 
Thotigh  these  views  were  never  generally  accepted  I^y  the  English 


2G6  COLONIES     OF     T  H  t:     WORLD 

1800-1910 

people,  they  in  many  cases  affected  unfortunately  English  colonial 
policy.  To  this  cause  may  be  attributed  much  of  the  weakness 
tliat  marked  the  measures  of  the  British  Government  in  South 
Africa. 

The  federation  of  Canada,  while  in  the  main  a  result  of  the 
application  of  liberalism  to  colonial  affairs,  and  an  event  observed 
with  gloomy  forebodings  by  some  who  feared  that  it  would  lead 
to  complete  independence,  was  in  fact  a  turning  point  in  the 
history  of  the  British  empire.  It  stimulated  a  broader  patriotism 
in  the  colonies  and  thus  promoted  a  feeling  of  attachment  to  the 
empire  and  pride  in  its  history.  As  schemes  for  the  federation 
of  Australia  and  South  Africa  were  more  and  more  discussed, 
tliis  feeling  of  imperial  patriotism  strengthened  and  became  one 
of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  reaction  from  liberalism  which 
marked  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  This  reaction 
extended  to  economic  as  well  as  political  relations.  The  policy  of 
free  trade,  adopted  in  England  in  the  middle  of  the  century,  had 
not  been  followed  by  the  great  self-governing  colonies.  On  the 
contrary,  these  soon  used  their  new  liberties  to  protect  their  own 
industries  at  the  expense  of  those  of  the  mother  country.  In  the 
meanthne  the  sharp  industrial  competition  of  Germany  and  the 
United  States  drove  many  English  manufacturers  to  desire  pref- 
erences in  tlie  colonial  markets.  The  measures  adopted  by  the 
imperial  government  to  relieve  the  distress  in  the  West  Indies  con- 
stituted a  distinct  though  slight  departure  from  the  old  free- 
trade  policy.  For  the  imperialists  it  was  but  the  entering  wedge. 
Joseph  Chamberlain,  formerly  colonial  secretary  in  the  Balfour 
conservative  government,  sought  to  drive  it  home  by  advocating  a 
distinct  policv  of  preference  for  colonial  goods  in  the  English  market 
and  for  English  goods  in  the  cr)lonies.  In  1897  Canada,  under  the 
irritation  of  tariff  controversies  v/ith  the  United  States,  had  granted 
such  a  preference,  anfl  in  1902  a  conference  of  colonial  premiers 
liad  rccommo'1-ie.';  h'ke  action  in  other  colonies.  A  preference  for 
colonial  goods  in  ]".ngland.  hrnvever,  means  the  partial  exclusion 
f)f  foreign  food-^tnff-;  and  a  probable  increase  in  their  price,  whicli 
might  be  a  great  h;u>',ship  to  the  laboring  population,  and  a  dis- 
tinct menace  to  j-.nglan'rf,  industrial  efficiency.  Chamberlain 
founrl  ]'  necessary  to  resign  frnm  tlie  cabinet  in  order  to  advocate 
liis  \!c\\  s  wiili  freedom.  Tfis  commercial  policy  is  avowedly  for 
the   purpose   of   uniting   the   empire    more   closely.     Balfour,    the 


BRITISH     DEPENDENCIES  267 

1800   1910 

prime  minister,  proposed  retaliatory  duties  upon  goods  of  those 
countries  which  tax  British  manufactures  heavily,  which  was  a  less 
radical  departure  from  free-trade  principles.  This  attack  upon 
the  policy  of  free  trade,  which  had  been  un(|uestioned  in  England 
for  half  a  century,  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  overwhelming 
liberal  victory  in  tlie  recent  elections.  The  present  liberal  govern- 
ment is  [)lcdged  to  free-trade. 

The  new  imj^erialism  seeks  organic  expression  in  some  form 
of  federation  for  the  whole  empire.  The  practical  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  such  a  step  are  very  great,  but  we  may  yet  see  the 
establishment  of  some  sort  of  council  for  tlie  empire  with  very 
limited  powers.  Once  firmly  establislied.  such  an  institution  might 
in  time  develop  into  an  imperial  parliament,  l-^^r  the  present  the 
farthest  step  in  this  direction  is  tlic  I'dding  of  periodic  c(;nferences 
between  the  premiers  of  th.c  self-governing  colonies  and  the  colonial 
office  in  L(jndon.  These  conferences  recommend  the  adoption 
of  certain  policies  by  all  the  colonies  concerned  and  by  the  mother 
country. 


Chapter     XV  • 

COLONIAL  EMPIRE  OF  FRANCE.     1800-1910 

THE  colonial  empire  of  France  in  the  west  has  shrunk  to 
narrow  dimensions.      Nothing  of  North  America,   New 
France,  of  Canada,  Acadia,  and  Louisiana  now  remains 
to  the  French  people  except  the  little  fishing  islands  of  St.  Pierre 

and  Miquelon  near  the  southern  coast  of  Newfoundland,  whither 
the  hardy  sailors  of  Granville  and  St.  Malo  still  ply  in  the  summer 
time,  while  the  wealth  and  civilization  of  Santo  Domingo  are  but 
feebly  represented  by  the  decaying  islands  of  IMartinique  and 
Guadeloupe.  St.  Pierre  and  ^Miquelon  were  taken  by  the  English 
in  1778,  restored  in  1783  and  again  taken  and  restored  twice 
during  the  Napoleonic  wars.  This  group  of  rocky  islands  has  a 
total  area  of  but  ninety-three  square  miles,  and  in  1897  the  popula- 
tion was  6352.  The  chief  industry  is  cod-fishing,  in  which  the 
people  busy  themselves  directly,  besides  furnishing  supplies  to  the 
French  fishing  fleet  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland. 

In  the  West  Indies  the  colonial  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century 
left  to  France  Hayti.  Guadeloupe  with  its  dependencies,  i^.Iar- 
tinique,  and  Guiana.  The  fate  of  French  dominion  in  Hayti  and 
the  massacre  of  the  white  population  by  the  blacks  has  already  been 
told.  The  decrees  of  the  revolutionary  convention  in  France  pro- 
duced anarchy  in  the  other  French  islands.  In  ^Martinique  the  war 
of  races  was  ended  by  the  capture  of  the  island  by  an  English 
force  in  1794.  In  Guadeloupe  the  negroes  for  a  time  held  the  in- 
terior of  the  island,  but  the  whites  mastered  them  at  last  and  took 
a  fearful  vengeance  for  the  massacres  committed  by  the  negroes 
in  their  rising.  Tlie  Englisli  occupied  Guadeloupe  also  in  1704. 
but  within  three  months  were  exi)cllcd  by  a  French  force  under 
Victor  Hugues.  At  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in  1802  ^Martinique  was 
restored  to  France.  Napoleon  now  adopted  the  policy  of  restoring 
the  old  French  colonial  empire.  In  1798  he  had  attempted  to  found 
an  empire  in  the  cast  by  the  seizure  of  ]\[alta  and  the  occupation 
of  Egypt,  hut  his  inx-asion  of  Syria  h:id  failed,  his  fleet  had  been 


F  R  A  N  C  E  269 

1800-1 'J  10 

destroyed  by  Nelson  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  and  he  had  returned 
to  France  leavin^if  an  army  in  Fg-ypt.  which  was  forced  to  sur- 
render to  the  Fng-lish  in  i8oi.  An  Fnglish  force  had  also  captured 
Malta.  Peace  with  England  made  it  possible  for  France  to  re- 
assert her  power  oversea,  and  Napoleon's  design  was  nothing  less 
than  the  restoration  of  the  Im-chcIi  colonial  system  and  trade 
in  America,  substantially  as  it  had  existed  before  the  Seven  Years' 
War.  This  system  turned  upon  the  tropical  production  of  sugar 
and  the  supply  of  food,  timber,  and  other  necessaries  for  the 
plantations  from  a  temperate  zone  colony  on  the  mainland.  This 
last  function  had  been  discharged  by  Canada  under  the  old  regime, 
and  the  center  of  French  sugar  production  had  been  Hayti. 
Napoleon  therefore  undertook  to  reconquer  ]{ayti  and  reduce  the 
blacks  to  slavery  again.  Tlie  failnre  of  that  enterprise  has  been 
described.  To  supply  the  place  of  Canada  in  his  new  colonial 
empire  Napoleon  extorted  from  Spain  by  the  =ecret  Treaty  of  San 
Ildefonso,  ratified  ]\larch  21,  1801,  the  cession  of  Louisiana,  com- 
prising the  city  of  New  Orleans  and  tlie  vast  territories  stretching 
westward  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Aiississijjpi  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  successful  resistance  of  the  blacks  of  Hayti  made 
Louisiana  valueless  for  Napoleon's  colonial  plans,  and  he  accord- 
ingly sold  it  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  War  with  England 
was  renewed  in  the  same  year.  It  resulted  in  the  loss  of  }\Iar- 
tinic|ue  and  Guiana  in  1809.  and  of  Guadeloupe  in  1810.  L^pon 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  all  were  restored  to  France. 

The  economic  history  of  the  French  \\'est  Indies  resembles 
that  of  the  neighboring  ih-itish  i-Iands.  I'hey  have  undergone 
the  same  economic  revolutions  caused  by  the  abolition  of  s]a\-ery, 
by  the  discontiimancc  of  the  protection  once  accorded  to  colonial 
products,  and  by  the  competition  of  beet-sugar.  We  have  seen 
how  slavcrv  was  aboh'shcd  by  the  revolutionary  convention  in 
France  and  reestablished  ])y  the  consulate.  Tlie  restored  Bcnirbons 
set  up  the  old  colonial  system  again,  but  the  \vorld  movement  for 
emancipation  made  itself  felt  in  hVance  al-n.  P.olween  1832  and 
1848  many  mea>urcs  for  tlic  iK'netit  of  the  negrt>cs  were  adopted, 
which  the  planters  regarded  as  steps  toward  emancipation  and 
resisted  accordingly.  I  Mans  were  mak'ing  f(^r  safeguarding  the 
interests  of  ilie  wlriics  .-md  the  ocnomio  welfare  of  the  colonics 
when  the  re\-oIntii 'P.  (>\  1S48  occnrrcd.  TliC  new  government 
proclaimed  the  immediate  emancipation  ^)'\  all  the  blacks  and  pro- 


J270  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

hibited  long-time  contracts  of  service.  The  amount  of  compen- 
sation paid  to  the  v/hites  was  about  $ioo  for  each  negro,  probably 
an  insufficient  sum,  and  its  payment  was  delayed  more  than  a 
vear.  The  economic  crisis  was  aggravated  by  this  delay,  but  the 
general  course  of  events  was  the  same  as  in  the  British  West 
Indies.  Tlie  production  of  sugar  declined  one-half  in  three  years, 
tlicn  slowly  recovered  until  it  exceeded  its  former  amount.  The 
French  planters  in  ICS55  followed  those  of  Trinidad,  British  Guiana, 
and  Cuba  in  organizing  a  supply  of  coolie  labor,  and  in  improv- 
ing their  crude  agriculture.  The  discontinuance  of  the  old  colon- 
ial monopoly  was  a  matter  of  slower  growth. 

After  the  loss  of  Canada  and  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  it  became  necessary  to  open  the  trade  of  the  French  islands 
in  some  measure  to  xA.merican  products.  The  wars  of  the  revo- 
lutionary and  Napoleonic  era  had  of  necessity  stopped  the  old 
channels  of  trade  and  at  last  severed  all  political  connection  be- 
tween the  colonies  and  France.  On  the  restoration  of  the  old 
monarchy  it  was  necessary  to  relax  many  of  the  old  restrictions 
of  the  pacfc  colonial,  which  in  the  French  system  answered  to  the 
English  Navigation  Act.  From  1826  foreign  flour  was  admitted 
sul)ject  to  a  moderate  and  decreasing  duty:  reciprocity  treaties 
were  negotiated  with  England  and  the  United  States,  which  made 
large  inroads  into  the  old  colonial  monopoly.  The  sugar  colonies 
of  France  had  suffered  greatly  since  the  time  of  Napoleon  from  the 
competition  of  home-grown  beet-root  sugar,  notwithstanding  the 
tax  laid  upon  the  latter  in  1843,  and  Cuban  and  Javan  sugars  were 
at  las*;  admitted  to  the  French  markets  on  equal  terms  with  sugar 
grown  in  tlie  French  islands.  The  planters  nov/  demanded  free 
trade  in  provisions,  free  navigation,  and  freedom  to  refine  their 
sugar  in  the  islands,  and  their  demands  were  gradually  conceded. 
In  t86i  these  colonies  were  allowed  to  trade  with  foreign  coun- 
tries; in  1866  tliey  were  removed  from  the  fiscal  control  of  the 
iKjme  government,  and  local  assemblies,  on  the  model  of  those 
\vhic!i  had  1)een  founded  under  th.e  Charter  of  1830  on  the  basis 
of  tlie  colonial  coviicils  established  by  that  of  1814,  were  allowed  to 
nn]-.o;-c  their  (j\vn  customs  duties;  so  that  the  French  West  Indies 
])rac::::;illy  cnioy  independence.  But  a  new  protectionism  has  suc- 
cce  ^(1  the  old.  I'Yance  adopted  the  policy  of  preferential  trade 
with  the  crtlonics  in  1884,  when  the  colony  of  Reunion  established 
import  duties  of  certain  foreign  products  in  exchange  for  equality 


FRANCE  271 

1800   1910 

of  colonial  and  French  products,  competing  in  the  French  market, 
and  a  differential  of  five  per  cent,  in  favor  of  colonial  products 
which  do  not  compete  with  French  products,  the  revenue  from  the 
new  customs  duties  to  be  applied  in  encouraging  local  industry  by 
remission  of  taxation  and  by  the  payment  of  bounties. 

The  government  of  the  French  West  Indies  has  reflected  the 
political  changes  of  the  mother  country.  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XVL,  colonial  assemblies  were  set  up  by  Neckar  and  Turgot,  The 
Restoration  did  not  go  so  far,  but  made  use  of  committees  of  con- 
sultation as  organs  of  local  opinion.  The  new  establishment  of 
colonial  assemblies,  with  full  fiscal  powers,  has  been  set  forth. 
In  addition,  the  colonies  elect  representatives  to  the  French  par- 
liament, Lhifortunately  universal  suffrage  has  given  political  con- 
trol into  the  hands  of  the  negroes  and  has  stimulated  race  hatred. 
The  white  element  of  the  population  is  subjected  to  oppression 
and  is  in  danger  of  disappearing  altogether.  Well-informed  ob- 
servers fear  that  the  history  of  Hayti  will  be  repeated  and  that 
the  French  Antilles  will  relapse  into  barbarism.  Their  population 
in  1901  was  118,112  for  Gua(leloui)e  and  dependencies,  with  an 
area  of  688  square  miles;  and  203,781  for  .Martinique,  with  an 
area  of  381  square  miles.  In  May,  1902,  St.  Pierre,  the  chief  city 
of  IMartinique,  was  destroyed,  and  substanti;iliy  all  of  its  inhabi- 
tants instantly  killed  by  a  volcanic  eruption  from  ^Mont  Pelee. 
Besides  the  sugar  islands,  French  Guiana  remains  a  melan- 
choly relic  of  the  old  West  Indian  Empire.  This  colony  has  never 
thriven  since  its  first  occupation,  and  suffered  severely  by  the  hasty 
emancipation  of  tlie  slaves  in  1848.  A  boundary  dis[)ule  with 
Brazil  was  settled  by  arbitration  in  1900.  The  chief  industry  is 
gold-mining.  By  the  census  of  1901  the  populaiion  was  32.908 
and  the  area  of  tlie  colony  30.500  miles.  France  has  maintained 
a  penal  settlement  in  (Guiana  since   1855. 

Until  1862  tlie  only  j-^rencli  pi)S>cssions  in  the  East  Indies 
were  the  ancient  irading  sclllenients  of  Mahc  i-n  the  "\Ialabar  coast. 
with  P(jndicherry,  Karik;'.!,  Vanaon.  and  Clianderriagore,  on  ihe 
Coromandel  coa^t.  being  all  that  England  liad  spared  to  the  i)  iwcr 
which  had  once  been  her  competitor  for  the  Indian  empire.  A  few 
shiploads  of  Indian  goods  carried  from  these  ancient  settlements 
to  Saint  Xazaire  are  thus  all  that  remains  of  the  great  visior.s 
that  were  more  lh:in  half  rc;ih':'.ed  by  Du])leix.  Tlie  I'rerich  ports 
woi'o  only   preserved    ironi   ohl-xinn   bv   (I'lciiing   litem   lo   .-hip-   i.'i 


272  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

all  nations  in  1816,  after  that  long  war  in  which  French  commerce 
was  for  the  time  destroyed  and  the  French  colonies,  including 
these  ancient  Indian  possessions,  fell  into  English  hands  until  peace 
was  restored.  Chandemagore,  Pondicherry,  and  Yanaon  once 
possessed  a  flourishing  trade  in  cotton  goods,  designed  for  sale 
in  the  populous  island  of  Bourbon,  and  in  the  West  African  set- 
tlement of  Senegal.  The  protection  granted  by  France  to  the 
textile  fabrics  of  its  Indian  settlements  having  ceased  in  1864, 
their  trade  has  been  since  assimilating  itself  to  that  of  the  rest 
of  India  and  the  share  of  France  in  it  has  declined.  The  colony 
is  under  a  governor,  who  resides  at  Pondicherry  and  is  assisted 
by  a  general  council  of  twelve  members,  of  whom  five  are 
officials  and  seven  are  chosen  by  the  local  councils.  All  must  be 
qualified  by  a  knowledge  of  the  French  language.  This  general 
council  was  established  by  decrees  dated  1872  and  1874.  The 
former  decree  also  established  a  local  council  in  each  of  the  five 
settlements,  one-half  of  the  members  in  each  case  elected  by  per- 
sons of  European  blood  and  one-half  by  the  natives.  These  local 
councils  have  but  little  power.  There  are  ten  communes  with 
municipal  institutions.  The  colony  is  represented  in  the  French 
Parliament  by  one  senator  and  one  deputy  elected  by  the  voters 
without  distinction  of  race.  It  is  one  of  the  few  French  depend- 
encies which  pays  its  own  way  and  something  more,  sending  to 
the  French  treasury  920,000  francs  annually.  The  administration 
is  somewhat  faulty  and  tends  to  yield  too  little  to  native  sentiment. 
With  a  total  area  of  196  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
275,000  these  settlements  are  of  practical  value  to  France  chiefly 
as  coaling  stations. 

The  French  rule  in  Indo-China  began  under  the  second  em- 
pire. In  1858  a  war  with  the  king  of  Annam  was  undertaken  by 
JM-ance  for  the  protection  of  French  missionaries  in  that  country. 
It  resulted  in  the  occupation  of  tlie  port  of  Saigon,  on  the  south- 
eastern coast  of  the  peninsula  of  ("arther  India.  By  a  treaty 
concluded  in  June,  1862,  the  king  of  Annam  ceded  to  France  the 
port  and  tlie  three  neighboring  provinces,  opened  certain  of  his 
ports  to  European  trade,  and  guaranteed  religious  freedom 
throughout  his  dominions.  Ill  treatment  of  Christian  mission- 
aries continued  nevertheless,  and  resulted  in  the  annexation  of 
three  more  pro\inces  in  1867,  the  king  p.ppealing  in  \-ain  for  aid 
to   liis   <uzcr,-iiii.    ilie   cm[)eroi-   of   C'liina.      1'hc   six   prminces   thus 


FRANCE  27f3 

1800   1910 

obtained  make  up  Cochin-China,  and  include  the  delta  of  the 
Mekong  River.  The  French  had  hoped  to  tap  the  trade  of  the 
southern  provinces  of  China  by  way  of  this  river,  but  a  scientific 
expedition  in  1866- 1868  proved  this  to  be  impracticable.  French 
enterprise  was  thus  attracted  to  the  Song-Koi  or  Red  River,  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Annamite  dominions  called  Tonkin.  The 
delta  of  the  Red  River  was  infested  by  pirates,  and  French  activity 
in  that  quarter  resulted  in  a  collision  with  the  natives,  wherein  a 
small  French  force  under  Lieutenant  Garnier  was  ambushed  and 
destroyed.  Negotiation  resulted  in  a  treaty  concluded  in  1874, 
which  opened  Red  River  to  French  commerce  and  allowed  the 
stationing  of  French  consuls  w^ith  armed  escorts  in  certain  towns. 
Under  this  treaty  France  claimed  a  protectorate  over  the  country, 
but  China,  the  suzerain  of  Annam,  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
validity  of  the  treaty  and  sent  Chinese  troops  into  Tonkin.  In 
1882  a  French  expedition,  sent  out  under  Commander  Riviere  to 
enforce  the  treaty,  captured  the  town  of  Hanoi  and  established 
the  French  power  over  the  delta  of  the  Red  River,  but  was  soon 
destroyed  by  the  natives  and  its  leader  killed.  Strong  recnforce- 
ments  were  sent  out.  Admiral  Courbct,  in  1883,  bombarded  Hue, 
the  Annamite  capital  and  extorted  a  treaty  acknowledging  the  pro- 
tection of  h^rancc  over  Annam  and  Tonkin,  but  it  had  to  be  made 
good  by  hard  figliting  against  the  "  IMack  l^lags,"  or  brigands, 
and  against  the  Chinese  troops  in  the  couiUry.  In  the  ensuing 
war  with  China  the  I'^rcncli  seized  a  part  of  i^^rmosa,  antl  secured 
some  successes  on  the  Chinese  frontier  of  Tonkin.  Feace  was  con- 
cluded in  1885,  I'^ancc  agreeing  to  exacuate  I'ormosa,  and  China 
conceding  to  h'rancc  exclusixe  contrc^l  of  the  foreign  relations  of 
Annam  and  the  substantial  mastery  of  the  whole  country  including 
Tonkin.  In  i8()3  iM-ench  protcclicn  was  e^tablislicil  over  the 
neighboring  tcrriiiu"}-  lu  ba<'S,  ;ind  ilie  !''rcncli  I)i>nn(!ary  pushed 
westward  to  the  Meio'ng  Kixer  throiighout  its  wliole  course  from 
the  Chinese  frciilicr  t^i  I'/.c  iicrthern  bnundary  of  L'aniljodia.  Tliis 
kingdom,  lying  norih  of  i!ic  lir>t  |-"rench  colony  of  Cochin-Cliina. 
on  both  sides  of  tlic  ^Mclanig,  recognized  tlie  French  pnnectoratc 
in  1863,  and  in  1884  ii^  administration  was  undertaken  by  t!ie 
governor  of  Saigon.  15y  a  treaty  negotiated  with  Siam  in  1893 
France  secured  the  full  control  of  tlie  right  bank  of  the  ^lekong 
and  a  strip  of  territory  extending  tweiUy-fu'C  kilometers  west- 
ward  fi'oni  ilie  ri\rr.     All   l-'i\';irl!    Indo-C'liina  Ci_>ntains  abmit    ;(>>.- 


274  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

ooo  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  20,000,000,  Further 
expansion  to  the  west  and  the  absorption  of  a  great  part  of  Siam 
is  probable.  An  agreement  between  France  and  England,  signed 
January  15,  1896,  extended  the  French  sphere  of  influence  over 
the  eastern  portion  of  that  kingdom,  while  guaranteeing  the  au- 
tonomy of  the  valley  of  the  Meinam.  The  terms  of  this  agreement 
were  further  defined  by  the  treaty  signed  April  8,  1904.  In  the 
event  of  the  partition  of  China  France  expects  to  get  the  island  of 
Hainan,  off  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin,  and  the  southern  provinces  near 
the  present  French  frontier.  As  a  foothold  in  this  region  the  Bay 
of  Kwang-Chau  on  the  coast  of  the  Lien-Chau  peninsula  opposite 
Hainan  was  extorted  from  China  in  April,  1898,  upon  a  lease  for 
ninety-nine  years.  Eighteen  months  later  France  was  given  pos- 
session of  two  islands  commanding  the  bay,  and  in  1900  all  the 
territory  was  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  governor  general 
of  Indo-China. 

The  capital  of  Indo-China  was  removed  in  1902  from  Saigon 
to  Hanoi,  the  chief  town  of  Tonkin.  The  governor  general  ex- 
ercises his  powers  in  the  several  dependencies  through  "  residents- 
superior  "  except  in  Cochin-China,  which  is  under  a  lieutenant 
governor.  There  is  a  military  force  of  10,901  Europeans  and 
14,975  natives  under  French  officers.  Cochin-China  is  under  full 
French  sovereignty.  Its  colonial  council  contains  representatives 
of  the  French  citizens  and  Asiatics,  with  official  members  and 
members  chosen  by  the  chamber  of  commerce.  Saigon  and  Cholen 
are  municipalities  on  the  French  model.  A  college  was  established 
in  1874  at  Saigon  to  train  natives  for  the  public  service.  The 
colony  is  represented  in  the  French  Parliament  by  one  deputy. 
The  other  dependencies  are  governed  by  the  native  officials  under 
the  supervision  of  French  residents.  A  permanent  trained  civil 
service  and  tlie  rule  of  able  governors  general  have  established  law 
and  order  and  secured  general  prosperity.  Ambitious  plans  of 
railway  building  have  been  undertaken  by  the  government  to  de- 
velop the  resources  of  the  country.  The  chief  product  is  rice,  but 
sugar,  spices,  and  coffee  are  also  grown,  and  valuable  coal  deposits 
exist  in  Tonkin. 

The  French  were  late  comers  in  the  Pacific  and  found  the 
best  regions  occupied  by  their  old  rivals.  A  project  for  the  colon- 
ization (li  Xew  Zealand  was  thwarted  by  the  English  settlement  of 
those  islands,  as  already  narrated,      luiirland  had  also  effectivelv 


F  R  A  X  C  E  275 

1800  1910 

occupied  the  coasts  of  Australia.  At  the  time  of  the  accession 
of  Napoleon  III.  the  sudden  rise  of  Australia  through  the  gold- 
fields  of  Victoria  was  the  talk  of  the  whole  world.  Kot  a  great 
distance  from  Australia  was  the  island  which  the  English  had 
named  Xew  Caled(jnia,  but  had  never  thought  worth  occupying, 
though  it  had  been  more  than  (Mice  included  in  a  colonial  commis- 
sion. The  new  cmpercjr  saw  in  this  island  the  germ  of  a  future 
Australasian  France,  and  as  the  I'rench  were  really  in  want  of  a 
healthful  and  remote  site  for  a  penal  settlement,  the  English  made 
no  objection  to  its  occupation  by  the  Frencii  Government.  New 
Caledonia  therefore  became  French  soil  in  1853.  The  new  settle- 
ment was  to  be  developed  on  a  plan  exactly  similar  to  that  of  New 
South  Wales.  The  coiu-icls  were  to  be  partly  employerl  on  govern- 
ment farms,  and  partly  distributed  atuong  the  free  settlers,  who 
were  expected  to  emigrate  in  large  numbers.  These  expectations 
have  not  been  altogether  disappointed,  for  at  the  end  of  half  a 
century  New  Caledonia  contains  12.253  free  Europeans  besides 
10.056  convicts.  Th.e  tr,-msp(jrtation  of  convicts  thither  ceased 
in  1900.  Tlie  native  population  is  29,106  and  the  land  is  granted 
out  to  applicants  of  all  nationalities  at  a  small  redeemable  quit-rent. 
The  chief  agricnUural  products  are  coffee,  maize,  tobacco,  grapes, 
manioc,  and  pineapples.  Valuable  mines  nf  nickel,  cobalt,  and 
clu-ome  are  workcfl.  .and  dcp(~)sits  of  coal  ha\'c  been  discovered.  The 
area  of  the  island  is  7650  square  miles,  not  including  its  depend- 
encies, the  Isle  of  Pines.  Walks  Archipelago.  Loyalty  Islands, 
llnon  Islands,  i'utuna.  and  Alafi.  ^Fhe  colony  is  administered  by 
a  governor  generrd  and  an  elective  general  council.  Since  iScSj 
the  New  Ilebrides  grou}-)  of  islands  lias  ])ccn  under  the  joint  pro- 
tection of  England  rmd  I -"ranee. 

Ever  ready  to  seize  new  i<!eas.  tlic  I'rcnch  ha\'C  been  foremost 
among  the  nations  of  k'nrojx'  in  taking  up  gronnd  in  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific.  We  have  already  seen  how  Cook  first  made  the 
Pacific  world  known  to  l^uropc  in  the  latter  jvart  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Since  ikat  time  fjiglish  and  .American  enrerj)rise.  without 
losing  sight  of  ilie  i.^-lands,  lias  been  sufficiently  occupied  with  the 
continental  lands  nf  \usir;dia  and  Xorth  America.  The  French 
ha\e,  in  the  meamime.  just  as  in  Xorth  America,  been  acting  as 
liie  piiMieers  of  tlie  ro^:  of  F.urope.  Sitie  by  side  with  the  English 
and  Americans,  their  whalers  gradnall}'  l)ecamc  acciuainted  with 
the  natives  of  the  most  important  groups,  and  the  whalers  were 


illQ  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

soon  followed  by  missionaries  and  petty  traders.  Wherever  these 
estabHsh  themselves  a  certain  amount  of  political  influence  follows : 
and  in  this  way  the  English,  Americans,  French,  and  Germans  have 
made  many  isolated  beginnings.  In  some  cases  the  influence  of  a 
European  nation  has  been  already  extended  over  a  whole  island 
group.  Li  this  way,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  English  have 
taken  possession  of  the  Fiji  Islands.  The  Marquesas  Islands  were 
annexed  by  the  French  under  Louis  Philippe  in  1842.  The  minis- 
ters of  the  monarchy  of  July  assumed  at  the  same  time  a  protec- 
torate over  the  Society  Islands  and  one  or  two  other  adjacent 
groups.  In  addition  to  the  Society  and  Marquesas  groups  France 
now  holds :  The  Tuamotu  Islands,  or  Low  Archipelago :  the  Lee- 
ward Islands;  the  Tubuai,  or  Austral  Islands  with  Ravaivai, 
Rurutu,  and  Rimatara ;  and  the  Gambier  Islands ;  a  total  area  of 
about  1520  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  30,000.  The 
islands  are  administered  by  a  governor,  with  a  privy  council  and 
an  elective  general  council.  In  former  years  Tahiti  especially  suf- 
fered from  paternalism,  with  excessive  formalities,  passports,  heavy 
harbor  dues,  and  other  vexatious  exactions  which  repelled  Euro- 
pean settlement  and  commerce.  This  system,  abolished  in  1861, 
left  a  bad  name,  which  checked  development  for  a  long  time.  Of 
all  these  colonies  Tahiti  and  Morea,  among  the  Society  Islands, 
alone  contain  any  considerable  number  of  European  settlers,  who 
produce,  by  the  help  of  native  labor,  small  quantities  of  sugar, 
vanilla,  copra,  fruits,  and  mother-of-pearl  for  export.  Regular 
steam  communication  exists  with  San  Francisco  and  New  Zealand 
and  among  the  more  important  islands.  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  island  trade  is  with  the  United  States,  England,  and  English 
colonies.  These  may  be  small  beginnings,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  these  groups  of  islands  are  destined  to  rise  vastly  in  impor- 
tance with  the  growth  of  America  and  .Australia.  By  whom  tlie 
fruits  of  the  seed  which  the  French  are  tlius  fostering  will  l^e 
reaped,  is  a  different  question.  The  English  race  seems  destined 
sooner  or  later  to  enter  into  the  labors  of  the  French,  and  either 
Australian  or  American  influence  must  in  the  end  prevail  in  the 
Pacific  settlements. 

French  possessions  in  Africa  and  the  neighboring  seas  are 
extensive  and  important.  We  have  seen  how  in  the  great  Euro- 
pean wars  l)et\vcen  1793  and  18 14  the  English  took  from  the 
French  all  tlieir  colonies  and  possessions  tliat  were  worth  taking 


FRANCE 


277 


1800-1910 


at  all.  The  poor  figure  which  was  made  after  the  peace  of  1815 
by  the  French  colonial  empire  greatly  chagrined  the  French  nation, 
who  as  we  have  seen  had  at  one  time  in  their  history  shown  real 
genius  for  colonial  enterprise.  Under  Louis  XIV,  France  had 
been  a  great  colonial  power;  under  the  Regency  it  had  in  this  re- 
spect fast  declined,  and  its  ruin  was  completed  by  the  wars  of 
the  Revolution  and  the  Empire.    But  the  French,  always  an  elastic 


people.  resoKcd  to  rc(iocni  tlicir  colonial  reputation;  and  in  1821 
thev  made  a  fresli  boi^iuiiiii!;'  (hi  tlic  northeastern  coast  of  Mada- 
gascar, bv  takin;.;-  p;  issc.>-iori  of  the  island  of  Sainte  Marie.  The 
warlike  Hovas  after  a  loiii;-  siruq-i^le  forced  them  to  abandon 
for  the  time  an  attenij^tcd  settlement  on  the  mainland  of  Mada- 
gascar; but  tlicy  still  iXTsevercd  in  their  colonial  ideas,  and  in 
1840  neo'otiatcd  a  Iroatv  w  itli  'IVimandroho.  kiu^'  of  the  Sakalaves, 
who   had   been   dri\cn    1)\-    the   c-nijucriug    llo\-as    from   their  ex- 


278  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

tensive  possessions  in  Madagascar  to  the  Island  of  Nossi  Be,  on 
the  northwest  coast.  By  this  treaty  that  potentate  placed  himself 
under  tlie  protection  of  the  French  and  besought  their  aid  in 
regaining  from  the  Hovas  his  lost  territories.  France  took  pos- 
session of  the  Island  of  Xossi  Be  and  established  a  colony  there, 
but  did  nothing  for  Tsimandroho  on  the  mainland.  This  neglect, 
added  to  irritation  at  the  abolition  of  slavery,  led  to  a  rising  of  the 
Sakalaves  in  1849,  but  it  was  easily  put  down.  In  1841  possession 
was  taken  of  the  Island  of  Alayotte,  about  200  miles  off  the  north- 
west coast,  and  in  1886  a  protectorate  was  established  over  the 
neighboring  Comoro  Islands.  These,  with  Mayotte.  are  now 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governor  of  Reunion.  For  many 
years  French  and  English  merchants  and  missionaries  struggled 
and  intrigued  for  a  dominating  influence  at  the  Ho\-a  court  in 
^Madagascar.  The  French  claimed  dominion  over  the  northwest 
coast  by  virtue  of  their  old  treaty  with  Tsimandroho,  and  in  1883 
presented  an  ultimatum  to  the  Hova  sovereign,  demanding  the 
cession  of  the  disputed  territory  and  the  payment  of  a  large  in- 
demnity. This  led  to  war.  Tamatave,  on  the  eastern  coast,  was 
bombarded  and  occupied  by  the  French,  and  hostilities  were  car- 
ried on  with  varying  fortune  until  1885,  when  a  treaty  was  nego- 
tiated ceding  to  France  Diego  Suarez,  near  the  northern  end  of 
the  great  island,  subjecting  the  foreign  relations  of  Madagascar 
to  French  control  and  providing  for  a  French  resident  general  at 
Antananarivo.  In  1890  England  recognized  the  French  protec- 
torate o\-er  Madagascar,  but  the  Hova  government  steadily  refused 
to  do  so.  In  1895  ^  strong  body  of  French  troops  occupied  the 
capital  and  put  down  all  opposition.  In  1896  the  queen  signed  a 
declaration  conceding  the  full  control  of  the  French  resident 
general  over  tb.e  foreign  affairs  and  internal  administration  of 
the  country,  and  the  right  of  the  h^rench  reptiblic  to  maintain 
troops  there  to  enforce  its  authority.  On  August  6  of  that  year 
the  island  and  its  dcjx^ndencic^  were  declared  a  h'rench  colony,  and 
slavery  was  summarih.-  abolislicd  on  Se-ptemher  27.  The  depr»- 
sition  and  exile  <'f  the  queen  followed  in  [897.  The  French  ad- 
ministration at  first  met  with  ineffective  but  annoying  resistance, 
and  the  overtfirow  of  the  llova  power  ga\e  the  signal  for  bloody 
reprisals  a,^ain,-,i;  iliem  bv  tribes  wliich  li.ul  been  subjected  to  their 
r/^e.  Tlie  i-!aud  is  atlininl-^tered  l)v  a  governor  general,  assi>ted 
by   L.!;   administrative  .-(auncil.      ]\Iilitar\-   rule  still  exists  in  nianv 


F  R  A  X  C  K  279 

1800-1910 

provinces,  but  natives  are  largely  employed  in  the  adminislration. 
The  military  force  is  15.697  men,  one-half  natives.  Madagascar 
is  975  miles  long-  and  358  miles  in  breadth,  with  an  area  of  abont 
227,750  square  miles  and  a  population  of  2.500,000,  of  whom  15,000 
arc  Europeans.  Of  the  natives  500.000  have  been  Christianized. 
The  highlands  of  the  interior  arc  believed  to  be  suitable  for  Euro- 
pean settlement.  The  chief  products  of  the  country  are  gold, 
rafia  or  palm-fiber,  cattle,  hides,  and  rubber.  The  wretched  roads 
of  the  country  are  being  improved,  a  railroad  is  building  from 
Tamatave  to  Antananarivo,  postal  sen-ice  has  been  establi.shed 
throughout  the  island,  and  2830  miles  of  telegraph  are  in  operation, 
with  cable  connections  to  Mozambique.  In  1892  the  French  put 
in  force  in  Madagascar,  ^vith  some  modification,  the  French  pro- 
tective tariff.  This  caused  protests  to  be  made  by  the  English 
Government,  but  they  were  witlnlrawn  by  the  Anglo-French  treaty 
signed  April  8,   1904. 

The  Isle  of  Bourbon  or  Reunion,  situated  near  Mauritius,  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  420  miles  east  of  Madagascar,  has  had  much  the 
same  fortune  as  the  West  Indies.  Like  them  its  great  industry  was 
the  production  of  sugar  by  slave  labor.  The  iirmness  of  the  local 
government  and  the  distance  of  the  island  from  Europe  saved  it 
from  the  war  of  races  wliich  wasted  the  French  Antilles  during 
the  French  Revolution,  but  could  not  prevent  conquest  by  England 
in  the  Napoleonic  wars.  It  wr.s  restored  to  I'rance  upon  the  con- 
clusion of  peace.  After  the  eiuancipalion  of  the  slru'es  in  1848. 
Reunion,  as  the  Island  of  r)Ourl.)on  was  now  named,  would  have 
been  ruined  withcnit  furtlicr  protection,  and  a  bounty  was  tliere- 
fore  granted,  to  diminish  every  \'car  until  it  becaiuc  extinct  in 
1870.  In  tlie  meantime.  ]')rcpanitions  were  being  mailc  for  the 
extinction  of  the  bounty.  In  1861,  together  witli  the  West  India 
sugar  colonics.  Reunion  was  emancipated  from  the  control  of 
I'rance  by  the  total  abditi^'n  of  the  pactc  colonial;  the  pcoj)lc  were 
soon  empowered  to  ilx  llioir  own  custriins  duties,  on  condition  of 
I)ro\-iding  for  their  own  defense,  auvl  the  C(M(M'iy  tluis  bcc.'nne  ])rac- 
ticallv  incU'])cndent.  It  w;i^  the  lirst  to  accept  tlie  new  j)oHcy  of 
preferential  trade  as  described  in  tlie  account  gi\-cn  in  lliis  chapter 
of  the  West  Indies.  It  li;is  an  area  of  about  965  S([uare  miles  and  a 
population  of  about  173.000.  In  1896  Mayotte  and  the  Comoro 
Islands,  lying  halfwav  bet\veen  Madagascar  and  the  .\frican  coast, 
were  placed  iin-'icr  tiie  governor  of  Reunion.     Together  they  have 


280  COLO  N  I  E  S     O  F     T  II  E     W  O  R  L  D 

1800   1910 

an  area  of  about  760  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  58,000. 
Reunion  is  administered  by  a  governor,  privy  council,  and  elective 
general  council,  and  is  represented  in  the  French  Parliament  by  a 
senator  and  two  deputies.  Other  French  islands  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  are  St.  Paul,  Amsterdam,  and  Kerguelen. 

Algeria,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  ]Mediterranean  opposite 
the  coast  of  France  and  stretching  indefinitely  southward  into  the 
Sahara,  became  a  French  possession  by  a  gradual  and  costly  con- 
quest which  began  in  1830.  The  country  is  divided  into  three  de- 
partments, having  together  an  area  of  184,474  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  4,739,331,  of  whom  about  640,000  are  Europeans. 
French  and  naturalized  foreigners  and  Jews  make  up  the  greater 
portion  of  the  non-native  population,  and  there  are  large  numbers 
of  Spaniards  and  Italians  also.  The  Algerian  Sahara,  with  an  area 
of  about  123,500  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  50,000, 
is  not  included  in  these  figures.  Each  of  the  three  departments 
sends  a  senator  and  two  deputies  to  the  French  Parliament.  There 
is  also  a  superior  council  for  the  colony,  composed  of  delegates 
from  each  of  the  departments,  who  meet  once  a  year  for  discussing 
and  voting  the  colonial  budget.  The  governor  general  is  assisted 
in  his  administration  of  the  country  by  a  council  with  advisory 
powers.  The  wild  tribes  of  the  Sahara  still  hold  themselves  free 
and  France  maintains  in  the  colony  a  military  force  of  57,000  men. 
Tunis,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  immediately 
east  of  Algeria,  is  nominally  a  vassal  state  of  Turkey.  The  French 
invaded  the  country  and  established  their  protectorate  in  1881. 
The  government  is  carried  on  in  the  name  of  the  native  Bey,  under 
the  French  foreign  office.  The  French  minister  resident  general, 
who  is  minister  for  foreign  affairs  for  Tunis,  governs  the  country 
with  the  aid  of  a  ministry  of  seven  Frenchmen  and  two  Arabs. 
Native  courts  administer  justice  between  native  litigants,  and 
French  courts  in  cases  where  either  party  is  a  European.  The 
French  dominion  is  upheld  by  an  army  of  19,460  men.  The  area 
of  the  country  is  about  51,000  square  miles,  and  the  population 
about  1,900,000,  including  about  24,000  French,  besides  soldiers 
and  sailors,  and  about  80,000  Italians  and  ■Maltese.  French  control 
in  the  Sahara  west  of  the  Nile  valley,  an  area  of  about  1,500,000 
square  miles,  including  the  Libyan  desert  and  the  half-civilized 
state  of  Wadai,  has  been  recognized  by  England.  The  Anglo- 
French  treaty  signed  April  8,   1904,  gives  France  a  free  hand  in 


1800-1910 

Morocco  on  condition  that  no  fortifications  are  to  be  erected  be- 
tween Melilla  on  the  Mediterranean  and  the  mouth  of  the  Sebu 
River  on  the  Atlantic,  a  distance  of  about  150  miles  on  each  coast 
from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  that  free  trade  is  to  be  main- 
tained for  thirty  years.  Notwithstanding  the  vague  Spanish 
claims  to  Morocco  we  may  look  to  see  the  rights  thus  secured  by 
France  converted  into  effective  control. 

French  West  Africa  is  now  organized  under  one  government, 
including  Senegal,  French  Guinea,  the  Ivory  Coast,  Dahomey,  and 
the  territories  of  Senegambia  and  the  Niger.  Senegal  includes  the 
coast  between  the  Spanish  territory  on  the  north  and  the  Ciambia 
River  on  the  south.  It  has  an  area  of  80,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  estimated  at  1,180,000,  and  is  represented  in  the  French 
parlement  by  one  deputy.  There  are  also  three  "  military  terri- 
tories "  on  the  upper  Niger,  of  which  the  most  important  is  that 
centered  at  Timbuktu.  By  the  treaty  of  April  8,  1904.  with  Eng- 
land, France  has  secured  a  rectification  of  frontier  between  the 
Niger  and  Lake  Chad,  with  access  to  the  northwestern  shores  of 
the  lake,  through  a  fertile  country.  French  Guinea  occuj)ies  about 
95,000  square  miles  on  the  coast  north  of  tlie  I-'nglisli  colony  of 
Sierra  Leone  and  south  of  Portuguese  Guinea.  Its  population  is 
about  2,200,000.  The  Anglo-hVench  treaty  of  April  8.  1904, 
transferred  to  France  the  Los  Islands  off  tlie  coast.  The  Ivory 
Coast,  116,000  square  miles  in  area,  with  a  population  of  2.000.000, 
is  east  of  Lil)eria  and  west  of  the  English  colony  of  the  Gold  Coast. 
Dahomey  stretclics  northward  from  a  frontage  of  seventy  miles 
on  the  coast  between  the  German  Togoland  and  the  linglish 
Nigeria,  widening  toward  the  interior  and  covering  an  area  of 
60,000  square  miles,  with  1,000.000  populatiiMi.  The  territories 
of  Senegambia  and  the  Niger  occu])y  210.000  S(|r,are  miles  on  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Sencg.nl  and  Niger.  Their  population  is  esti- 
mated at  3.000.000.  I'rom  Dahomey  west  and  south  iov  more 
than  600  nn'les  the  coast  is  ()ccu])ied  !)}•  liriti-h  Nigeria  and  the 
German  colonv  <if  Kaincnm.  .'-^onth  of  ivamiMain  and  between  it 
and  the  Congo  I'rcc  State,  a  distance  of  5(X~)  miles  by  the  coast,  is  all 
French  tcrritorv  cxcci)t  for  a  small  hoUling  by  the  Spanish  in  the 
northern  ])ort'.on.  and  by  Portugal  in  the  southern.  This  region 
is  called  iM-ench  Congo  from  tlie  great  river  which  separates  it  on 
the  east  from  the  Congo  h'rce  State  for  a  distance  of  400  miles, 
whence    it'^   northern    aftluent.    the   Ubangi,    carries    the   l)()undarv 


2S2  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

northward  400  miles  more.  The  hne  then  turns  eastward  and 
runs  over  500  miles  farther  to  the  borders  of  British  East  Af- 
rica, thence  in  a  general  northwesterly  direction  along  the  borders 
of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Soudan  into  the  Sahara  another  600  miles. 
The  boundary  toward  the  German  Kamerun  runs  westAvard  from 
the  coast  400  miles,  thence  in  a  general  northerly  direction  to  Lake 
Chad,  the  southern  shore  of  which  is  divided  between  the  two  na- 
tions. This  vast  region  of  450,000  square  miles,  with  a  popula- 
tion estimated  at  10,000,000,  is  administered  by  a  commissioner 
general  at  Libreville,  on  the  coast,  assisted  by  a  lieutenant  governor 
at  Brazzaville,  on  the  lower  Congo.  Thus  French  Africa  occu- 
pies the  bulk  of  the  northern  and  western  part  of  the  continent  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Congo  and  the  Atlantic,  hemming  in  the 
various  territories  of  other  nations  scattered  along  the  coast.  Its 
government  varies  from  full  sovereignty  in  Algeria  through  all 
grades  of  protection  and  vague  influence  over  the  tribes  of  the  in- 
terior. Railroads  and  telegraphs  are  building  or  projected  in  all 
the  west  coast  colonies  to  connect  the  sea  with  the  navigable  upper 
waters  of  the  Niger  and  the  Congo,  and  it  is  proposed  to  unite 
Algeria  and  Central  Africa  by  the  railway  across  the  Sahara.  The 
attempt  of  the  French  to  occupy  the  upper  Nile  valley  proved 
abortive,  as  also  did  the  expedition  of  ]\Iarchand  from  the  west  coast 
to  Fashoda.  At  Fashoda  Marchand  was  about  600  miles  west  of 
the  French  Somali  Coast  Protectorate  at  the  entrance  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  could  he  have  maintained  himself  there  friendly  relations 
with  Abyssinia  might  have  permitted  the  establishment  of  communi- 
cations and  French  influence  from  west  to  east  across  the  continent. 
The  French  Protectorate  on  the  Somali  coast  is  administered  by  a 
governor  and  general  council,  and  has  an  area  of  46.000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  200,000.  A  railway  has  been  built  from 
Jibutil,  on  the  coast,  to  Hara,  in  Abyssinia. 

The  entire  colonial  empire  of  France,  if  we  include  Algeria 
and  Tunis,  embraces  an  area  of  about  4,000,000  square  miles,  and 
a  ])opu]ation  estimated  at  51,000,000,  but  it  is  nowhere  suited  to 
the  develo]:)mcnt  of  a  new  French  nation,  such  as  the  English  race 
has  created  in  the  United  States.  Canada,  and  Australasia,  and  is 
creating  in  South  Africa.  Population  is  stationary  in  France  and 
emigrants  are  few.  Even  if  this  were  not  so.  the  southern  sliores 
of  the  Mediterranean  are  ]:)reoccupied  by  a  numerous  and  liardy 
people  and  elsewhere  climate   forbids  extensive   European  settle- 


FRANCE  283 

1800-1910 

ments.  French  colonies  must  remain  for  the  most  part  colonies 
of  exploitation,  wherein  Frenchmen  will  act  as  civil  rulers  and  as 
organizers  and  directors  uf  commerce  and  industry.  Much  of  the 
territory  has  been  but  recently  acquired,  and  the  charges  paid  by 
France  for  its  administration  are  still  very  heavy,  amounting  to 
about  $20,000,000  a  year.  Though  this  may  be  ver}'  materially 
reduced  by  better  administration  of  colonial  affairs  and  the  de- 
crease of  military  expenses  as  peace  and  order  are  inore  firmly 
established  throughout  the  newly  acquired  territories,  it  must  for 
many  years  remain  a  considerable  sum.  Successful  colonization 
demands  heavy  initial  expense  and  a  long  period  of  persistent  and 
unremunerative  endeavor.  The  totrd  trade  of  tlie  colonies,  in- 
cluding Algeria  and  Tunis,  is  about  $275,000,000  a  year,  whereof 
two-thirds  is  with  France.  The  recrudescence  in  I'Tance  of  those 
ideas  of  exclusive  economic  policy  which  underlay  the  old  pactc 
colonial  has  been  noted,  "fhe  extreme  advocates  of  this  policy 
would  establish  a  customs-union  by  extending  around  all  the  col- 
onies the  high  ])rotective  tariff  of  France.  'Yh\i  has  already  been 
substantially  done  with  respect  to  some  of  them,  notably  Madagas- 
car. In  others,  sncii  as  Senegal,  a  s}'stem  <^f  preferential  trade  ex- 
ists whereby  moilerate  advantages  are  mutually  gixen  to  French 
and  colonial  products.  ]n  a  tliird  class  the  pre\'ailing  system  is 
sub>tantia]  free  tr;i(lc,  I'reneh  and  fcjreign  products  competing  on 
equal  terms  in  the  colonial  markets.  Tins  lack  of  u.niformity  is 
due  in  i)art  to  the  international  agreements  and  understandings 
under  ^vllich  spheres  of  inrluence  ha\-e  i)een  recognized  antl  boun- 
daries defined,  of  which  an  examj)!e  i'^  tlie  agreement  as  to  Morocco 
in  tliC  treaty  of  April  8,  1904.  It  is  probabl}-  well  for  b^rancc  that 
her  free(l(.)m  of  actit^n  has  been  thus  ro--ira!neil.  An  empire  with 
terrili)rios  scattered  o\er  all  ])aris  of  tlic  world  c;innot  with  safety 
be  subjected  to  the  logical  unif(->rinity  >o  dear  tii  the  krencli  mind, 
but  llie  I'jccnliar  circumstances  of  ca.cli  ci  Mor.y  mu>t  be  allowe<l  t" 
oxL-rridc  sx'sicm  and  order.  The  cn-ii 'i'ii<  nni^  mi  ])i'l'c\'  w^rks  lu'ird- 
>ii:,is  to  t!:e  col.-nics  <n!ii>.i'ic<l  m  it.  and.  cni!)i  .,;;;.■.-  tlic  osetuial  \'\qc. 
of  tlie  old  j\ictc  Ci'li'iiui'.  iiic  regulation  of  ilicir  econ.inic  life  iov  tk.e 
benclit  of  tlic  mother  cmmtry.  The  h.i 'ine  administration  of  I'^rench 
colcjuial  affairs  in  tlie  early  period  oi  colonial  enterprise,  after  the 
restoration  of  the  luiurl),  ",!>,  wa-;  in  tr.e  hands  of  th.e  ministry  of 
marin.e.  If  wa-  in  iSSi  transferred  ',0  the  dcpartnicr.;  if  C'm- 
ineree.  ;n    iSSj  reinriied  i''  the  marine  and  in    i88g  a>>igned  i'^  a,: 


28J.  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

undersecretary  in  the  ministry  of  commerce  and  industry.  A  sep- 
arate ministry  of  the  colonies  was  not  organized  until  1894,  It  has 
no  control  over  Algeria  and  Tunis,  the  former  being  an  integral 
part  of  the  republic  and  the  latter  under  the  control  of  the  foreign 
office.  The  right  of  representation  in  the  French  Parliament  en- 
joyed by  the  older  colonies  does  not  work  well  in  practice.  Mem- 
bers chosen  by  universal  suffrage,  sometimes  not  without  flagrant 
corruption,  to  represent  the  negroes  of  the  West  Indies  or  the  natives 
of  India,  lack  the  numbers,  character,  and  unity  of  purpose  essen- 
tial to  the  exercise  of  a  proper  influence  in  the  national  legislature. 
Moreover,  French  legislation  for  the  colonies  is  enacted  by  the 
executive  in  the  form  of  decrees,  the  necessary  power  to  this  end 
having  been  delegated  to  the  emperor  in  1852  and  retained  by  his 
republican  successors.  The  power  to  legislate  remains  with  the 
chambers  and  when  exercised  is  supreme,  but  it  is  ordinarily  un- 
used. Accordingly  the  "  Conseil  Supcrieur  des  Colonies  "  has  been 
created,  composed  of  the  colonial  senators  and  deputies  with  dele- 
gates from  other  colonies  and  official  and  private  persons  specially 
qualified  by  knowledge  or  experience  to  give  advice  upon  colonial 
affairs. 

In  local  administration  most  of  the  colonies,  through  their 
elective  councils,  are  self-governing  to  a  certain  extent.  Such 
powers  are  most  ample  in  the  older  colonies,  but  the  unwise  gift  of 
universal  suffrage  has  perverted  them  to  the  uses  of  race-hatred 
and  corrupt  political  methods.  The  executive  branch  of  the  co- 
lonial government  has  not  wholly  escaped  from  the  bad  influences 
of  French  politics,  which  have  led  to  frequent  changes  in  the  serv- 
ice and  a  useless  multiplication  of  offices.  The  faults  of  the  French 
colonial  administration  are  the  faults  of  the  bureaucrat:  devotion 
to  routine,  a  passion  for  uniformity,  arbitrary  disregard  of  native 
institutions  and  prejudices,  and  paternalism.  To  these  we  may 
add  certain  national  characteristics :  impatience,  timidity  in  under- 
taking great  and  necessary  pul)lic  enterprises,  combined  with  the 
mability  to  adoj)!  rough  and  ready  expedients  essential  in  a  new 
country.  Tlie  perfectiMnism  of  the  trained  hVench  architect  and 
engmecr  will  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than  is  demanded  by 
the  standards  of  his  craft  in  France.  Therefore  public  works  of 
all  kinds  are  exceedingly  costly  in  the  I'^rencli  colonies. 


Chapter  XVI 

THE    DUTCH    COLONIAL    EMPIRE.    1800-1910 

MOXG  the  old  rivals  of  England  in  the  field  of  colonial 
empire  the  Dutch  alone  have  steadily  maintained  an  im- 
portant place.  The  colonial  greatness  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal has  entirely  passed  away  and  the  vast  colonial  empire  now 
held  by  France  is  a  new  creation,  but  the  Dutch  have  continued  to 
hold  their  possessions  in  the  West  and  East  Indies  save  for  a  brief 
interval  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  when  Holland  was  dominated 
by  France  and  its  colonies  were  occupied  by  the  English.  After 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  England  restored  to  the  Dutch  all  their  col- 
onies except  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  and  a  portion  of 
Guiana,  and  to-day  their  colonial  possessions  are  783,000  square 
miles  in  area,  with  a  population  of  about  36,000,000.  These  are  all 
in  the  tropics  and  are  necessarily  of  the  plantation  rather  than  of 
the  settlement  type,  but  tlie  colonial  enterprise  of  the  Dutch  should 
be  credited  with  the  foundation  of  a  new  Dutch  nation  in  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  South  Africa,  which  is  now  a  part  of  tlie  British 
empire  and  has  already  been  described. 

The  Dutch  West  Indies  lie  in  three  different  groups,  St.  Eus- 
tace, Saba,  and  St.  Martin,  among  the  Leeward  Islands.  Curacao, 
.\ruba,  c'uul  iH)naire,  oti  tlie  coast  of  X'cnezucla,  all  C(Mnj)osing  the 
colony  of  Curacao;  and  Surinam  ur  Dutch  Guiana,  which  is  a  col- 
ony by  itself.  As  we  ha\-e  seen,  down  to  the  i-"rencli  Revolution, 
the  Dutch  West  Indies  were  in  the  hands  of  commercial  companies; 
since  that  time  tlicy  ha\e  been  in  the  hands  of  tlie  Dutch  Govern- 
ment. St.  Eustace  is  fammis  in  liisiory  for  its  seizure  and  plunder 
by  the  Englisli  under  Rodney  during  tlic  American  War  of  In- 
dependence. Tlic  Dutch  Leeward  l.-lauiL  lia\-e  sliared  tlie  fate  of 
the  English  ruid  I'rcnch ;  and  tlie  barren  islands  on  the  \'enezuelan 
coast,  having  derixcd  all  their  importance  from  the  contraband 
trade  carried  on  with  S])anisli  America,  have  sunk  into  insigniii- 
cance  since  its  intlependence.  Nor  is  the  story  of  Dutch  Guiana 
more  interesting.  It  is  cliielly  remarkable  as  the  scene  ^^i  the  long 
and  desolating  servile  war  which  lasted  for  sixty-two  years  (1715- 


'2S6  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

1777),  and  was  only  terminated  by  an  armament  of  European 
troops.  Since  that  time,  Surinam  has  been  heavily  in  debt.  The 
aboHtion  of  slavery  was  delayed  until  every  other  species  of  mis- 
fortune had  done  its  worst  in  Surinam,  and  only  effected  in  1863. 
The  colonists,  liowever.  have  done  their  best  to  secure  a  supply 
of  free  labor,  and  Surinam  still  exports  small  quantities  of  sugar, 
as  well  as  producing-  cocoa,  coffee,  bananas,  and  rice,  besides  gold. 
The  government  of  Surinam  is  an  official  autocracy:  for  though 
nine  elected  and  four  official  members  sit  in  what  is  called  the 
House  of  Assembly,  they  have  no  power  of  initiating  any  measure, 
nor  control  over  the  government  expenditure.  H  the  governor 
takes  any  action  against  the  advice  of  the  majority  he  must  give 
express  reasons  therefor  in  writing.  The  elected  members  are 
chosen  by  voters  cjualificd  by  the  payment  of  taxes.  The  colony 
of  Curacao  is  ruled  by  a  governor  and  executive  and  legislative 
council  appointed  by  the  Crown  and  each  island  is  under  a  sub- 
ordinate official  appointed  by  the  Crown.  Surinam  has  an  area 
of  46,060  square  miles,  Curagao  403  square  miles.  Their  popula- 
tion in  1900  was  68,968  and  52,301  respectively. 

If  the  Dutch  West  Indies  have  shared  the  decay  of  the  other 
European  colonies  in  that  quarter  of  the  world,  far  different  has 
been  the  history  of  their  East  Indian  possessions,  comprising  the 
bulk  of  the  great  Eastern  Archipelago,  which  lies  south  and  east  of 
the  continent  of  Asia,  and  stretching  from  Sumatra  eastward  to 
the  British  and  German  territory  in  the  eastern  end  of  New  Guinea, 
and  northward  to  the  British  possession  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Island  of  Borneo.  These  vast  territories,  like  those  of  British 
India,  are  held  in  varying  degrees  of  dependence  upon  their  Euro- 
pean masters,  and  are  classified  as  lands  under  direct  government, 
vassal  lands  and  cc^n federated  lands.  By  far  the  most  important  is 
Java,  which,  with  the  neighboring  small  island  of  Madura,  forms 
a  central  or  home  district.  All  the  other  islands  being  reckoned  as 
outposts,  or  "  beyond  seas."  Owing  to  the  unusual  fertility  of  the 
soil  and  the  long  establishment  of  Dutch  rule  in  Java  and  Madura, 
the  greater  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  archipelago  and  four-fifths  of 
the  population  are  concentrated  here,  tliough  these  two  islands  em- 
brace less  than  (jne-fourteenth  of  the  total  area  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  Some  account  has  already  been  given  of  tlie  Dutch 
East  India  Company  and  its  mono])o]y  of  trade  with  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  the  East,  which  it  controlled  by  direct  or  indirect 


DUTCH     COLONIAL     EMPIRE 


1800-1910 


287 


means.  The  company  was  successful  as  a  commercial  enterprise 
only  during  its  early  years.  It  soon  became  an  agency  for  levying 
tribute  upon  the  native  states  of  the  Indies,  and  from  the  tribute 
thus  levied  came  all  the  profits  of  the  company  when  there  were 
any  profits  at  all,  for  during  the  greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  company  was  insolvent,  and  maintained  its  credit  by  paying 
large  dividends  which  had  not  been  earned.     The  native  tribute 


{=n  Oitch 
fza  Onitfd  Siatef 
CSS  Crermsry 
ma  tnimh 


ILA.ST    INDIES 

• — if)06  — 


took  the  f('rni  oi'  "  C(»nt;!iL;'cnts  "  and  "  htrccd  deliveries."  being 
supplies  o\  ccrl;ii!i  tr('])ical  products  ex;'.ctcd  annually  from  the 
native  governments  for  a  stipulated  low  price  or  withotit  any  co'.n- 
pensation  whatexer.  In  exacting  tlic  trihute  the  Dutch  ofiicials 
became  in  some  degree  the  direeiors  of  the  industry  of  the  native 
states,  in  effect  reijuiring  th.en.i  to  plant  certain  crops  in  speciiied 
quantities,  -ufnciciii  \'>  ]i;iy  tl:e  amount  ihie.  l-'rom  this  sprang  t'le 
"culture  s\-iein,""  vii   wliieii  we  -iiali  -])ea!x  later. 


288  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

The  company,  as  we  have  already  seen,  had  long  been  de- 
caying; and  after  the  rupture  with  England,  in  1780,  its  losses 
could  no  longer  be  disguised.  The  capture  of  the  Dutch  home- 
ward-bound Indiamen  by  the  English  cruisers  not  only  made  it 
impossible  to  pay  its  dividends,  but  even  necessary  to  apply  to  the 
States  General  for  a  loan.  The  States  General,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, granted  the  loan  only  on  condition  of  a  strict  inquiry  being 
instituted  into  the  company's  affairs;  and  as  early  as  1789  it  was 
resolved  to  send  out  commissioners  to  Batavia  to  remedy  the  evils 
which  had  grown  up  during  just  a  century  of  conservatism.  Six 
years  elapsed  before  the  commissioners  made  their  report ;  and  as  in 
the  meantime  Holland  had  once  more  become  a  power  hostile  to 
England,  the  condition  of  affairs  had  become  very  much  worse.  The 
company  now  entirely  ceased  to  control  its  own  affairs,  though  it 
continued  for  some  time  to  have  a  legal  existence.  Until  1808, 
after  the  loss  of  Ceylon  and  the  Cape,  the  Dutch  Indies  were  ad- 
ministered by  a  committee  of  the  States  General ;  and  in  that  year 
the  government  was  formally  vested  in  the  nation.  Louis  Bona- 
parte, now  King  of  Holland,  sent  out  to  Java  a  military  officer 
named  Daendels.  It  had  long  been  settled  that  coffee  was  the  most 
promising  staple  for  Java;  and  Daendels  at  once  enforced  its  cul- 
ture to  such  an  extent  that  he  was  able  to  boast  of  having  had 
40,000,000  coffee  trees  planted.  This  vigorous  system  lasted  only 
until  181 1,  when  it  was  suddenly  overthrown  by  the  English  inva- 
sion. Batavia  was  taken  in  that  year  by  Auchmuty;  Daendels  ex- 
changed his  coffee  planting  for  a  commission  in  Napoleon's  expedi- 
tion to  Russia ;  and  the  Dutch  Indies  for  five  years  remained  in 
possession  of  the  English.  The  change  to  the  English  rule,  which 
was  far  less  oppressive  than  that  of  the  Dutch,  especially  in  its  last 
phase,  when  the  power  and  resources  of  the  government  had  been 
strained  in  order  to  recover  past  losses,  seems  to  have  been  grateful 
enougii  to  the  inhabitants  of  tlie  Dutch  Indies ;  and  there  were 
many,  both  in  the  colony  and  at  home,  who  supposed  that  tlie 
conquest  was  to  be  permanent.  This,  however,  was  not  to  be  the 
case.  In  1816  the  Dutch  Indies  were  restored  to  Holland,  and  the 
epoch  was  signalized  by  revolts  in  several  parts,  finally  culminating 
by  that  of  Dipa  Negara,  in  1825,  in  the  heart  of  Java  itself,  which 
lasted  five  years.  Famine  and  pestilence  had  in  the  meantime 
swept  over  tlie  cr)lonv.  and  the  necessity  became  clear  for  changes 
ni  a  swce[)inc;'  character,  if  the  Dutcli  Indies  were  ever  to  be  ni.'icU- 


D  i;  T  C  II     COLO  N  I  A  L     t:  M  P  I  K  K  HHd 

1800   1910 

worth  keeping-.  Besides,  since  tlie  English  merchants  had  ob- 
tained the  free  navigation  of  the  Dntch  seas,  their  rivalry  with  the 
Dutch  almost  bade  fair  to  renew  the  animosities  of  two  hundred 
years  before.  iLnglish  vessels  often  touched  at  the  islands  and 
made  treaties  with  the  natives,  who  were  always  readier  to  trade 
with  them  than  with  the  Dutch.  The  English,  however,  saw  that 
it  would  be  more  advantageous  to  them  to  have  one  or  two  large 
free  ports,  where  the  natives  could  come  and  bring  their  goods; 
and  by  the  treaty  of  1824  the  Indian  disputes  of  the  English  and 
Dutch  were  definitely  settled,  on  the  principle  that  the  I£nglish 
should  keep  the  mainland,  and  the  Dutch  the  islands.  All  the 
Dutch  possessions  on  the  continent,  including  their  numerous  set- 
tlements on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts,  and  the  port  of 
Malacca,  were  ceded  to  England,  and  the  English  ga\'e  up  to  tlic 
Dutch  all  their  settlements  in  tlie  islands,  England,  besides  this. 
obtained  the  island  of  Singapore,  which,  as  the  center  of  English 
commerce,  has  become  one  of  the  greatest  marts  of  the  Eastern 
seas.  Ry  this  treaty  the  Dutch  possessions  were  greatly  concen- 
trated; and  they  were  soon  extended  on  their  new  basis.  The 
occupation  of  the  vast  island  of  Sumatra  was  begun  in  1S38  and  in 
1873  was  undertaken  the  subjugation  of  the  last  independent 
native  state,  the  Sultanate  of  Atjeh  or  Achin,  in  tlic  northern  cor- 
ner of  the  island.  The  ca^.\ai  and  the  coast  districts  were  bOon 
subdued,  but  the  chiefs  of  the  interior  kept  up  a  fanatical  resist- 
ance, rising'  in  arms  again  and  again  after  they  were  tliought  to 
be  subdued,  and  encouraged  from  time  to  time  by  tlie  temj)orizing 
l)(_)licy  of  the  Dutch.  Their  cnnrageous  but  useless  struggle  is  still 
in  progress.  In  other  parts  ui  the  archijx'lago  le,-s  scricus  n.atne 
resistance  has  been  encountered.  Tn  addition  to  the  u>nal  cau-es 
of  friction  between  civilized  and  barbarous  people,  the  iii(le])endent 
]\lalav  states  u'cre  nests  of  ])ii'acy,  and  tlieir  subjection  to  luiri  pc^n 
contrcjl  was  inc\'itab!e  and  in(li>i)eii<able  to  the  safet}'  ot  coniinei-ce. 
The  Dutch  l-.ast  Indies  liavc  been  ciiielly  t'ainnus  U>v  t'le  -^ii-cailed 
"culture  system"  long  e>tai)Hs]ieil  tl;ere.  'J'his  was  in  it.-^  e>.-^ence 
the  raising  of  crops  of  certain  tr(»i)ical  gonds  by  the  forced  lal^wr 
of  the  natives.  It  was  long  believed  that  the  Dutch  had  success- 
fully solved  the  lal)or  (juestion  for  tropical  coltMiie^.  tliat  Iw  direct- 
ing with  Iiuropean  sagacity  the  labor  of  tl:e  nati\-es  tlicy  were 
able  to  pav  the  native  sultan  a  larger  revenue  tlian  !ie  could  get  for 
himseif.    l^   >eciii'e   a   liig'ier   degree   .  i    [>;■'  -jk  r:;y    ii.r   tiic   hiMi.rer 


290  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800  1910 

and  to  make  a  very  large  return  to  the  mother  country.  For  the 
period  1840  to  1874  the  average  surplus  thus  paid  to  the  Nether- 
lands is  calculated  at  about  $13,000,000  a  year,  though  its  exact 
amount  cannot  be  ascertained.  This  unearned  tribute,  for  such  it 
really  was,  induced  extravagant  expenditure  in  the  Netherlands, 
with  all  its  attendant  economic  ills,  but  in  the  Indies  the  evil  effects 
of  the  culture  system  were  more  direct  and  far  more  serious.  For 
the  native  laborer  it  was  a  system  of  corruption  and  oppression 
without  check  or  limit.  Its  undeserved  good  repute  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  book  of  an  Englishman.  J.  W.  B.  Money,  resident  in  Cal- 
cutta, who  visited  Java  in  1858  on  a  trip  for  health  and  pleasure. 
In  his  association  with  European  officials  and  planters  and  with 
the  native  nobility  he  picked  up  much  rose-colored  misinformation, 
which  his  ignorance  of  the  Dutch  and  native  languages,  and  conse- 
quent inability  to  make  any  thorough  investigation  of  his  subject, 
did  not  deter  him  from  giving  to  the  world  in  two  volumes,  pub- 
lished at  London  in  1861  under  the  title,  "Java:  or  How  to  Man- 
age a  Colony."  At  the  time  the  culture  system  was  undergoing 
attack  in  the  Netherlands,  and  its  defenders  seized  on  ]\loney"s 
book  as  a  party  weapon.  The  wide  vogue  thus  given  it,  and  the 
comparative  ignorance  of  the  Dutch  language  prevailing  in  other 
countries,  have  perpetuated  its  historical  errors.  Not  until  1904 
was  there  available  in  English  a  thorough  and  comprehensive  ac- 
count of  the  economic  policy  of  the  Dutch  in  the  East  Indies.^ 

W'c  have  seen  how^  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  exacted 
tribute  from  the  native  states  in  tiie  form  of  "  contingents  "  or 
"  i'orced  deliveries,"  being  payments  of  certain  goods  in  specified 
tju.'intities  either  at  a  low  price  or  without  any  compensation  what- 
ever, and  how  governor  Daendels  enforced  this  system  in  extend- 
ing the  culture  of  coffee.  Tlie  energetic  luiglish  go\"ernf)r,  Thomas 
Stamford  Raflles,  seeing  the  abuses  inherent  in  the  prevailing  sys- 
tem, attempted  a  radical  reform,  the  snl^stitution  of  a  land  tax  for 
the  contingents  and  forced  deliveries  to  the  European  rulers  as 
well  as  for  all  other  dues  and  services  paid  by  the  people  to  the 
native  rulers.     This  reform   was  never   fully  carried  out,   owing 

^Clive  Day,  "The  Policy  and  Administration  of  tlie  Dutch  in  Java.'' 
New  York,  1904.  The  editor  is  chiefly  indebted  to  Dr.  Day's  book  for  the 
account  of  the  cidture  -y.^tem  licre  given.  Tlie  .^^-stcni  is  mildly  criticised  in 
]'.  Leroy-Beaulieu's  "  /J,-  /<.'  cxlonisaiiav  dic:::  Irs  j'Cif  Irs  inodrrrrs."  .'Ih  cd.. 
l'ari«.  1902.  \i..  ]>.  280;  ^.nd  il-  .•il);i-(.--  a;-'.'  frank'y  --i.-Ucd  in  A.  Zinnr.ernKiiin's 
'■  Pic  Kuloiiialholitik  drr  Xicdcrlaudrr,"    Berlin,   100,5.  p.  217. 


I)  i;  T  C  H     C"  O  L  0  X  I  A  L     J-:  M  V  I  R  E  291 

1800-1910 

partly  to  the  temporary  character  of  the  Enghsh  rule  and  still  more 
to  the  fact  that  the  small  number  of  J^uropean  ofticials  was  unable 
to  deal  directly  or  intelligently  with  the  native  laborers,  but  were 
forced  to  rely  upon  the  existinj^-  native  political  organization.  The 
native  governments  represented  Oriental  despotism  at  its  worst, 
and  were  at  once  weak,  corrupt,  and  oppressive.  The  power  of 
resistance  had  been  crushed  out  of  the  people;  money  was  scarce, 
and  could  be  had  only  oi  the  usurer  at  ruinous  rates  of  interest.  The 
social  organization  in  some  respects  resembled  that  of  mediaeval  Eu- 
rope. Taxes  were  ])aid  in  goods  and  services,  and  the  power  of  the 
native  rulers  to  exact  these  w^as  unlimited.  Every  demand  made 
upon  the  native  organization  was  passed  on  to  the  laborers,  with 
an  added  burden  of  corruption  and  extortion  for  every  official 
through  whose  hands  it  passed.  Under  sucli  circumstances  it  was 
difficult  to  realize  at  once  the  sound  ideals  oi  Rafiles,  while  it  w:is 
fatally  easy  to  revert  to  the  methods  of  the  company.  Even  dur- 
ing the  English  rule  the  old  abuses  persisted,  and  though  the 
Dutch,  when  the  islands  were  restored  to  them  in  i8i6,  at  first 
accepted  the  principles  which  underlay  Rafiles'  reforms,  increased 
the  number  of  Euriipean  ofticials  and  tried  to  restrain  the  abuses 
inherent  in  the  native  organization,  a  period  of  reaction  began  in 
1819.  Before  tliis  it  had  been  found  impossible  at  first  to  deal 
with  individual  laborers  in  C(illecting  the  land  tax.  and  as  a  tem- 
porary device  the  tax  v^as  collected  from  each  village  as  a  whole, 
and  tlie  amount  as-esscd  upon  each  village  was  fixed  by  bargain- 
ing, rather  tlian  upon  an}-  principles  C)f  justice  or  the  ability  to  p:\y. 
The  settlement  of  lun'ojjean  planters  and  mcrcliants  was  now  dis- 
couraged or  prohil)ite(l,  the  liberal  tariff  polic_\-  of  tlie  luigli-h  rule 
was  reversed,  and  new  restrictions  were  im]io>t(l  to  f;ivor  Dutch 
commerce,  and  finally  in  i8_'4  ilie  Dutch  'I'rp.ding'  Company  v,;ls 
chartered  for  the  tr;i<le  with  the  Indies,  h  w:\>  to  h;i\-e  n*^  n:  >- 
nopoly  rights,  no  governmental  powers,  and  was  forbidtlen  to  eii- 
force  cultures  upon  the  natives.  \c\-erthelc>^s  it  was  significant 
of  reaction  in  coltMual  polic}'.  Tlie  king  w::^  tlie  chief  stockholder, 
and  became  a  lica\\'  loser  by  the  unsuccessful  operations  of  the 
compan}'  in  its  carl}-  }-cars. 

In  the  third  dccji'le  of  the  last  centin\v  it  seemed  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  Dutch  Indies  shouUl  pay  their  own  way.  Tiie 
increase  of  colonial  e\])cn-cs  b.ad  produced  a  del'.cit  in  the  Indiiin 
budget  for   i8_'o  and  the   following  years,  which  was  greatly  in- 


29J2  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800   1910 

creased  by  the  war  with  the  native  Sultan  Dipa  Negara,  ah-eady 
mentioned,  so  that  the  Indian  debt  guaranteed  by  the  mother- 
country  increased  rapidly.  The  Belgian  provinces  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Holland  and  Belgium  were  showing  signs  of  the  dis- 
content, which  was  to  result  in  their  revolt  and  independence  in 
1830,  and  objected  strenuously  to  paying  for  the  colonial  ventures 
of  Holland,  and  finally  the  king,  whose  power  over  the  colonies 
was  substantially  absolute,  wished  to  recoup  himself  for  his  heavy 
losses  by  the  new  company.  Accordingly  Lieutenant  General  Van 
den  Bosch  was  sent  out  as  governor  general  to  change  the  deficit 
into  a  surplus,  and  entered  upon  his  office  in  Java  in  1830.  He 
established  the  culture  system,  which  was  a  conscious  reversion  to 
the  methods  of  the  old  East  India  Company.  His  plan  was  that 
instead  of  taxes  the  natives  should  give  the  government  a  certain 
proportion  of  their  land  and  of  their  labor  time.  These  were  to  be 
utilized  by  the  growing  of  valuable  export  crops  under  government 
direction,  instead  of  the  comparatively  valueless  rice,  which  was 
the  crop  usually  grown  by  the  natives.  The  theory  w^as  that  the 
wise  supervision  of  the  government  would  make  more  profitable 
use  of  the  land  and  labor  than  could  be  made  by  the  natives  them- 
selves. It  was  estimated  that  the  natives  would  give  one-fifth  of 
their  time  under  the  new  arrangement  instead  of  two-fifths  of  their 
crop  under  the  old  taxation  system,  and  Van  den  Bosch  put  forth 
his  scheme  under  the  guise  of  a  philanthropic  plan  for  their  wel- 
fare. It  was  pretended  that  the  cultures  were  to  be  free,  that  but 
one-fifth  of  the  land  was  to  be  taken  for  them,  and  that  adequate 
wages  were  to  be  paid  the  laborers.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
the  cultures  were  forced  from  the  first.  Soon  one-third  of 
llie  land  was  demanded,  and  in  some  districts  all  the  land 
was  actually  taken,  the  demands  on  the  labor  time  of  the 
Uc'tives  were  \\'ithout  limit,  tlie  wages  were  a  miserable  pittance 
paid  in  debased  currencv,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  the  system  of 
I'icce  wages  threw  all  tlie  loss  on  the  natives,  though  the  failures 
were  orten  due  to  the  blunders  of  the  government  clerks,  who  re- 
quired the  cultures  to  be  conducted  in  unsuitable  places  or  at  im- 
proper seasons.  Food  crops  necessary  to  the  subsistence  of  the 
people  were  often  displaced  by  the  forced  cultures,  and  the  laborer 
Avas  rjftcn  rciuired  to  transport  his  product  long  distances  to  the 
government  warehouses.  T'lscape  from  these  burdens  was  re- 
strained by  a  passport  system  designed  to  chain  the  laborer  to  the 


D  U  T  C  H     C  0  L  O  N  I  A  L     i:  M  P  I  R  E  293 

1800-1910 

soil.  The  culture  system  was  not  uniform,  imposing  heavy  burdens 
in  one  locality  and  light  ones  in  another,  while  a  thirrl  might  be  en- 
tirely exempt.  Further,  it  was  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the 
forced  services  for  public  works  and  the  gratification  of  the  private 
wants  of  the  officials.  These,  both  European  and  native,  were  stim- 
ulated by  premiums  on  the  products  to  increase  the  output,  and  used 
their  power  for  tyranny  and  extortion  withoiU  mercy.  The  abject 
laborers  had  no  means  of  escape  save  death  by  famine  and  pesti- 
lence or  tiight  fn)m  the  land.  The  government  returned  to  the 
policy  of  m(3no])oly,  discouraging  private  plruiiers  who  might  com- 
pete with  it,  and  granting  to  the  l^utch  Trading-  Company  the 
exclusive  right  to  export  the  products  of  the  forced  cultures.  The 
system  was  extended  to  the  nortliern  part  i>f  the  Celebes  and  the 
west  coast  of  Sumatra,  but  it  was  most  widely  prevalent  in  Java, 
though  even  there  it  occupied  but  a  small  ])roi)orti(>n  of  the  cleared 
lands.  'J'he  only  cultures  profitable  to  the  government  were  coffee, 
sugar,  and  indigo;  but  tea.  tobacco,  cinnamon,  cociiineal,  pepper, 
silk,  and  cottcni  were  tried.  The  profit  on  coffee,  aniounting  t() 
four-fifths  of  the  whole  net  revenue,  was  due  to  a  change  in  the 
price  of  the  article  in  Europe. 

That  a  system  so  oppressive  could  endure  so  lung  was  due  to 
the  reactionary  conservatism  prevailing  in  tb.e  Xetlierlands.  and 
the  absolutism  of  the  government  in  the  Indies.  In  the  home 
countrv  ministers  of  the  Crown  were  not  rcsnonsit-Ic  to  the  ic.':i-^- 
lature.  and  the  king  had  exclusive  control  of  the  C'll^^riies.  In  ihc 
islands  strict  secrecy  \\as  preserved:  the  i)rc>s  was  un/icr  rigid 
government  regulaticjns.  and  mo'^t  of  tlic  Iv^n'i 'pe;ni>  were  iti  tiic 
government  service.  Under  these  circun-istances  ll)e  pultlic  in  the 
Netherlands  remained  in  ignorance  of  coloiiird  atlairs.  Tlic  gen- 
eral l^.uropean  rcvolulion  cU"  1S4S  wa-  rcllccted  in  i)c;icct'i!l 
constitutional  reforms  in  Holland,  whcrcl)}'  ministers  were  ni:i<lo 
responsil)le  to  the  k-gi-ialiu'e,  iiic  franchise  was  brciadcned.  lih- 
erl\'  of  the  pre-^s  and  <■(  worsbij)  \^ere  gnaraniec'l.  and  tiie  gov- 
ernment of  the  colonic^  was  Im  he  regulated  h_\-  law.  Lihera.ls 
entered  the  secuid  eh:;nilH'r  antl  v.rw  rnhginmeil  as  i. '  U'c  evil  o>n- 
ilitions  in  the  Indies  hy  one  uf  their  numher.  i'.;ir. 'U  xan  lloewil. 
who  had  recentlv  returned  from  a  l^ng  residence  in  Java.  \]\ 
tS;.].  the  cliainbirs  c'\erci>ed  their  new  powers  by  ])assing,  wiiii 
the  king'^  a^-eiu.  the  '"  Kcgulati.  ui-  f.  ,r  the  g. 'W^-nmcnr  "f  Xetlx"- 
lands    India,""    which,    w  iii;    -'nir    anirndMien!-.    are    >::ii    in    fcive. 


294.  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

They  declare  the  objects  of  Dutch  rule  to  be  greater  freedom  of  the 
press,  abolition  of  slavery,  education  of  the  natives,  encouragement 
of  European  planters,  regulation  of  native  services,  etc.,  and  pro- 
pose the  reform  of  the  abuses  of  the  culture  system  and  its  ultimate 
abolition. 

Coincidently  with  the  growth  of  liberalism  at  home,  the  worst 
abuses  of  the  system  began  to  be  reformed  in  the  Indies,  and 
the  reforms  were  accelerated  by  the  colonial  constitution  of  1854, 
but  in  its  main  features  the  system  was  maintained  and  could  be 
abolished  only  by  the  direct  interference  of  the  home  government. 
The  impulse  to  this  was  supplied  by  the  novel  "Max  Havelaar; 
or  the  Coffee  Auctions  of  the  Dutch  Trading  Company,"  published 
in  i860  by  Edouard  Douwes  Dekker,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Mul- 
tatuli.  Dekker,  as  an  "  assistant  resident "  in  the  Indian  service, 
had  seen  the  abuses  of  the  forced  culture,  and  his  indignant  exposure 
of  them  shocked  the  humanity  of  the  Dutch  people  and  forced  the 
reform  of  the  system  to  the  front  as  an  issue  in  Dutch  politics.  In 
1870  the  refoniiers  won  the  victory,  passing  the  '"'  agrarian  law  '' 
to  safeguard  native  rights  and  encourage  European  planters.  Gov- 
ernment cultures  were  still  permitted,  but  were  gradually  abolished 
until  only  that  of  coffee  remains,  v/hich  now  produces  only  one- 
third  of  the  total  coft'ee  crop  and  seems  destined  to  extinction.  The 
European  planters  had  great  difficulty  at  first  in  securing  laborers 
for  their  plantations,  and  had  to  apply  to  the  native  chiefs  to  in- 
duce their  people  to  work — a  survival  of  forced  services  in  another 
form.  They  have  also  relied  upon  contracts  for  long  terms  of 
service,  whereby  an  advance  is  paid  to  the  laborer  and  he  becomes 
irrevocably  bound  for  the  full  term  of  service,  which  is  limited  by 
law  to  five  years.  These  contracts  are  minutely  regulated  by  law, 
and  must  be  publicly  recorded.  The  government  seeks  to  protect 
the  native  in  his  dealings  with  Euro])eans  and  Chinese  by  asserting 
its  absolute  ownership  of  all  the  soil,  save  such  portions  as  it  has 
granted  to  individu;ils.  prohibiiing  iis  sale  and  restricting  all  leases 
(ji  cleared  land  to  ;i  .sliuri  term.  L'nclcared  land  is  leased  to  plant- 
ers on  empliyteucic  leases  for  seventy-five  years,  subject  to  a  quit- 
rent.  i\t  the  end  of  the  term  the  lessee  has  no  right  to  a  renewal 
or  to  compensation  for  his  improxenients.  Along  with  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  forced  cuUures  has  gone  tl:e  restriction  and  regulation 
of  other  forced  ser\'iccs  recjuired  in  lien  of  t;!xcs,  arid  otherwise, 
in  llie  native  orgaiiizalioii.     'I'hc.^c  liaw;  in  some  ea.-^cs  been  abolislied 


DUTCH     COLONIAL     EMPIRE  295 

1600-191O 

or  commuted,  and  in  others  reduced  in  amount  and  freed  from 
abuses. 

The  reform  party,  which  carried  througli  the  abolition  of  the 
forced  cultures,  was  inspired  by  ideals  of  justice  toward  the  natives 
and  liberality  toward  luiropean  private  ])lanters.  but  it  was  by  no 
means  ready  to  give  up  the  larq^e  annual  net  surplus  contributed  by 
the  Indies  to  the  Xetherlands  budget.  Xevertheless  the  principles 
of  humanity  which  underlay  the  reform  demanded  larger  expenses 
for  the  benefit  of  the  natives.  Hence  the  government  expenditure 
in  the  Indies  shows  a  great  increase  in  the  items  which  touch  the 
native  welfare  most  nearly,  internal  administration,  education,  re- 
ligion, and  public  works.  To  this  has  been  added,  since  1873, 
the  burden  of  the  Atjeh  war,  so  that  the  surplus  has  disappeared 
and  the  budget  now  shows  an  annual  deficit.  State  railways,  irri- 
gation works,  bridges,  roads,  harbors,  and  public  buildings  have 
been  constructed  in  India ;  liberal  expenditure  has  been  devoted 
to  the  education  of  Em'opeans.  and  a  beginning  has  been  made  in 
the  education  of  the  native  ofllcials  and  even  of  the  common  people. 

The  powers  of  government  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  are  con- 
centrated in  the  hands  of  the  governor  general.  He  is  assisted  by 
a  council  ot  five  members  ai,ipointed  by  the  home  government,  but 
may  in  general  disregard  its  advice,  botli  in  legislation  and  ad- 
ministration. He  is  surrounded  by  a  permanent  clerical  staff,  vv'ho, 
by  familiarity  witli  details,  inex'itably  ha\-e  great  inllucnce  upon 
the  conduct  of  public  business.  I^hroughout  Java  and  Madura 
there  exists  a  Dutch  and  a  native  (»rganization  side  by  side.  The 
former  C(jnsists  of  officers  graded  downward  as  residents,  assistant 
residents,  and  controlcurs.  'flie  resident  emb<jdies  all  tlie  powers 
of  government  within  his  district,  wliicii  is  about  tlio  size  of  a  Xev.' 
England  count}'.  :uid  in  Java  lias  an  n'.'cra-c  i^oprJation  of  <ab(nu 
1,000.000.  Assistant  residents  exercise  aH  the  functions  of  the 
resident,  except  that  of  IcgislaticMi.  in  tlieir  several  districts.  L'ndcr 
them  arc  the  controlcurs.  who  are  in  clo.-e  touch  with  the  nati\e 
ofilcirds  and  are.  tiiercfore,  verv  inlUiential  nptni  ihc  policy  of  their 
superiors.  'I  he  nali/cs  are  governed  through  native  officials, 
regents,  district  Iicads  or  wcdimos,  and  uiidcr-district  heads.  Tlie 
regents  are  ap|)oinit.'i:  l)y  the  g'l-N'crnor  -cnei'ai  from  the  nat;\'e 
nobilitv.  u.-ually  upon  I'rie  jirinciple  01  lioiwlitary  succession.  w;ti: 
authoritv  over  districts  u^r.ally  CMrroponding  in  size  with  those  of 
the  assistant  resident <.     Their  subordinate.-,  the  (hstrict  heads,  are 


J^96  COLONIES     0¥     THE     WORLD 

J800   1910 

appointed  upon  the  advice  of  the  regents,  but  are  directly  subject 
to  the  Dutch  officials.  The  two  nominally  independent  principali- 
ties of  Soerakarta  and  Djokjokarta  are  controlled  as  protectorates, 
through  trusted  native  officers,  in  whose  hands,  rather  than  witli 
the  princes,  the  real  power  lies.  The  native  officials  are  paid  by 
the  colonial  government  and  treated  with  great  consideration. 
Below  them  stand  the  headmen  of  the  villages,  chosen  by  the  vil- 
lagers, subject  to  the  approval  of  the  colonial  government.  They 
are  important  officers  of  police,  and  administer  the  village  com- 
munal system,  and  with  them  the  colonial  government  deals  in 
apportioning  the  land  tax,  but  they  are  not  paid  by  the  government. 
The  outposts  or  outlying  possessions  are  administered  by  officials 
of  various  titles  upon  a  system  approximating  to  that  of  Java  and 
Madura. 

All  officers,  European  and  native,  look  to  the  governor  general 
for  direction  and  control.  Centralization  is  complete.  There  is 
no  local  government  except  the  native  village  organization,  and 
no  provision  for  local  representation  of  Europeans  or  natives  by 
appointive  councils,  such  as  are  usually  found  in  British  Crown 
colonies.  In  the  administration  of  justice  Europeans  are  under 
Dutch  law  and  European  judges,  while  natives  are  subject  to 
their  own  customs  as  applied  by  courts  in  which  their  chiefs  share 
the  judicial  power.  The  home  government,  through  its  minister 
of  the  colonies,  controls  the  governor  general,  and  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  telegraphic  communication  allows  him  less  and  less 
freedom  of  action.  The  States  General  has  the  power  to  establish 
and  amend  the  colonial  constitution,  to  settle  a  few  specific  ques- 
tions, and  to  legislate  for  the  colonies  in  case  of  necessity.  This 
last  power  is  little  exercised.  Most  colonial  legislation  is  enacted 
by  the  minister  of  the  colonies  alone,  to  whom  has  fallen  the  for- 
mer power  of  the  Crown  in  this  behalf,  and  in  practice  his  re- 
sponsibility to  the  States  General,  which  takes  little  interest  in 
colonial  questions,  is  ineffective  as  a  check  upon  him.  Thus  cen- 
tralizati(jn,  which  is  the  great  f;iult  of  the  Dutch  colonial  adminis- 
tration is  carried  one  step  furtlier.  The  States  General  has  retained 
ctjnirol  of  the  colonial  budget  and  passes  upon  it  annually. 


Chapter     XVII 

MINOR    EUROPEAN    POSSESSIONS.     1S00-T910 

THE  history  of  the  Danish  island  of  St.  Thomas  is  quite  nn- 
hke  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  West  Indies.  During-  the 
troubled  times  which  succeeded  the  French  Revolution  the 
loss  of  most  of  the  American  colonies  was  ^e^enerally  the  gain  of  St. 
Thomas.  The  island  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  neutrality  of  Denmark  made  St.  Thomas  an  important  place 
in  time  of  war.  In  1755  the  Danish  Company  was  bought  up  by 
the  government :  and  its  trade  had  become  so  considerable  that 
after  the  Definitive  Treaty  it  was  made  a  free  port.  During  the  wars 
of  the  French  Revolution,  St.  Thomas  continued  to  thrive  faster 
and  faster,  but  Denmark  could  n^w  no  longer  maintain  its  neu- 
trality, and  the  Danish  West  Indies  came  twice  into  possession  of 
the  English  (1801-1802  and  1807-1815).  St.  Thomas  tlourished 
more  and  more  during  the  wars  between  Spain  and  her  colonies; 
and  it  even  paid  a  large  yearly  tril)ute  to  the  mother  country  l<ing 
after  the  other  \\"est  Indian  colonies  had  been  hanging  like  a  dead 
w-eight  upon  Europe.  Denmark,  first  among  all  nations,  abolished 
the  slave  trade  in  170-',  and  the  abolition  of  sl;i\'ery  in  1848  was 
effected  without  disaster,  but  by  the  opening  of  all  the  oilier  islands 
to  general  trade  St.  'Diomas,  of  course,  gradually  lost  much  of  its 
peculiar  jiosition  in  the  West  Indies.  It  was  m 't  exempt  from  the 
calamities  which  often  befall  those  islands,  and.  after  an  usually 
heavy  \-isiiation  of  ])cstilence.  cartluiuake.  and  hurricane  in  1867, 
the  Danish  (loN-crnment.  unable  to  obtain  their  tribute,  and  be- 
lieving the  island  to  be  utterly  mined,  tiftorcd  it.  togctlier  with  the 
adjoining  island  of  St.  John,  to  the  I'ln'tod  States  t'.  ir  ."^7.500,000. 
This  bargain,  liM\\c\er.  was  ncx'er  ciMnpk-icd:  ;i  .-eciuid  treaty  of 
sale  to  the  L'nitcd  States,  signed  January  J4.  i(iO_'.  t'ailed  of  ratifica- 
tion in  the  Danish  Landsthing,  and  the  i>lands  still  remain  Danish. 
Denmark  also  ])os>es-es  in  the  We<t  Indies  the  little  inland  of  St. 
Croix,  near  the  X'irgin  Islands  in  the  Leeward  grou]).  which  was 
bought  of  the  French  in  lysC^'-  -'^'^'^  ^''  '•^^^'  U'^-rth  Atlantic  tlie  de- 

■297 


298  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

pendencies  of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands,  with  a 
total  population  of  about  100,000,  The  population  of  the  Danish 
West  Indies  is  about  30,000,  mostly  negroes  engaged  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar.  The  tiny  Swedish  island  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
bought  of  the  French  in  1784,  and  at  once  made  into  a  free  port, 
rose  and  fell  in  much  the  same  way  as  St.  Thomas.  With  the  es- 
tablishment of  free  trade  in  the  rest  of  the  West  Indies,  St.  Bart's 
ceased  to  be  worth  keeping.  In  1868  the  Swedish  Parliament  re- 
solved to  sell  it.  It  was  ceded  to  France  in  1878  and  is  now^  a 
dependency  of  the  French  island  of  Guadeloupe. 

Of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Asia  there  remain  only  the 
ancient  trading  stations  of  Goa,  Daman,  and  Diu,  on  the  Malabar 
coast  of  continental  India;  the  island  and  town  of  Macao  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Canton  River  in  China,  and  the  eastern  part  of 
the  island  of  Timor  in  the  ]\Ialay  Archipelago,  with  the  neighboring 
island  of  Pulo  Cambing.  Their  total  population  is  about  900,000, 
whereof  more  than  one-half  is  in  Goa  and  one-third  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago.  The  Portuguese  settlements  in  Africa  are  equally 
insignificant,  and  have  undergone  little  change  since  they  were 
first  made  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteen  centuries.  They  are:  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  off  the  northwest  coast;  Portuguese  Guinea, 
on  the  coast  of  Senegambia,  cut  off  from  the  interior  by  the  sur- 
rounding French  territory ;  the  islands  of  Principe  and  St.  Thome, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea;  Angola,  on  the  Atlantic  south  of  the  Congo 
Free  State,  and  Portuguese  East  Africa,  on  the  coast  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  north  of  Zululand.  Only  the  two  last  mentioned  have 
extensive  area  and  numerous  population.  After  centuries  of  neg- 
lect Portugal  made  some  feeble  efforts  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century  to  eft'ectively  occupy  the  interior  and  connect 
these  two  coast  colonies  by  a  broad  dominion  spanning  tlie  con- 
tinent from  east  to  west,  but  the  hour  of  her  fate  had  passed,  and 
luiglish  energy  seized,  and  holds,  the  vast  regions  watered  by  tlie 
upper  courses  of  the  Zambesi  and  Shire.  What  is  left  to  Portugal 
is  still  a  vast  domain,  with  an  area  of  about  800,000  miles 
on  botli  coasts,  and  a  population  of  7,000,000.  Her  other  African 
possessions  aljove  mentioned  together  have  an  area  of  about  Cooo 
square  miles  and  a  ]jopulation  of  a  little  less  than  1,000,000,  most 
of  which  is  in  Guinea.  In  Brazil  the  Portuguese  have  founded  a 
new  iiaLi(/n  oi  tlieir  race  and  sjjeecb.  l)ut  its  independent  develop- 


]\I  I  N  O  R     POSSESSIONS  299 

1800-1910 

ment  belongs  to  South  American  history.  Its  independence  was 
one  result  of  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution.  Upon  the  in- 
vasion of  Portugal  by  Napoleon  the  royal  family  fled  acnjss  the 
Atlantic  and  set  up  the  court  in  Brazil.  After  their  power  was 
restored  in  Portugal  the  Brazilians  refused  to  again  bow  to  the 
colonial  yoke,  but  chose  a  prince  of  the  royal  house  as  their  em- 
peror. This  independent  American  monarchy  gave  way  to  a 
republic  in  1S89.  The  islands  of  the  Azores  and  ^Madeira  are 
organized  as  integral  parts  of  the  Portuguese  kingdom. 

Continental  America  was  lost  to  Spain  in  consequence  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  as  we  have  seen,  and  when  vSpain  failed  to  re- 
conquer lier  revolted  colonies  the  V\-arning  cjf  the  United  States, 
expressed  by  President  Monroe,  su])]')ortcd  by  the  interests  and 
sympathy  of  England.  pre\-ented  llie  lloly  Alliance  of  luiropean 
povv'ers  from  inlervcniiig  to  reestablish  absolutism  in  the  v/e-tern 
hemis]:)here.  The  revolt  of  the  Sj)anish-American  states  inaugu- 
rated their  subsequent  independent  career  in  Mexico  and  Scnith 
Airierica.  The  war  of  the  L'nitetl  States  with  Spain  in  189s.  end- 
ing in  tlie  cession  of  Cuba,  Porlo  Rico,  the  i'Iiilipj)!ncs,  and  (jr.am 
to  the  Americans,  completed  tlie  ruin  of  tlie  col  <r.icil  cn:pirc  of 
Spain,  and  created  tliat  of  tlie  United  Slates,  under  w'iicli  liead 
we  will  give  the  history  of  the>^e  posscs.-ions  in  tlie  ni,ictcei:t!i  cen- 
tur}'.  Tlie  treat}'  wil:li  (iermany  of  I'cbruap/  8,  riS'n).  ceded,  to 
that  power  all  tlie  remaining  Spanisii  islands  in  the  P;icihc.  and 
left,  of  the  great  colc'iiial  empire  upon  which  the  sun  v.as  truly 
said  nc\-cr  to  set.  only  a  few  insigniticant  [)<<ssc>>ions  in  Africa: 
Rio  (le  Oro  and  .Ardar.  stretching  350  miles  along  tlie  coast  of  the 
Sah.:ira  front  Morocco  to  i-'rcnch  Senegal:  Rio  .Muni  andi  Ua})e 
San  jnan,  ic^o  miles  on  the  (inine;i  co;!^t.  hcmnK-d  in  i,)y  t'lc  <  lerman 
Kamerun  on  the  north,  and  !)y  !-rench  Congo  to  i:\v  e:ist  ;;nd  ^'ailii; 
with  tlie  nciglihoring  islands  <  \  l'"crna;ido  L'o.  .\-;nai)Mn.  Cor.sico. 
idobe\,  an.'!  San  Inan:  ail  :>  gciiirr  liaxnig  ;i  jx 'jMilaiioii  of  ij:;,c)o(>. 
The  Can:rrv  !^land^  rae  adminisicred  ;as  a.  pan  cf  >"pain  and  not  as  ;i 
dependenc\\ 

Idic  Congo  Free  SlrUe  is  es<enti:dly  a  colony  oi  tlie  I'el- 
gian  nation,  thongli  ni  lorm  a  personal  dcpend.ency  of  the  king. 
'I'he  U'Ugo  l-"rce  Suite  p.  --a.--es  a  \-a-L  region  ny'O.o.M:)  >fiuare 
mile- I.   r'i.i!   in  natural   re^-'urcc-.   wnh  a  iiali\'C  populatii'n  i.f  30,- 


300  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

000,000.     It  owes  its  origin  and  powers  to  international  agree- 
ments. 

Germany  and  Italy  were  late  comers  in  the  field  of  colonial 
empire.  Each  attained  national  unity  only  in  the  third  quarter 
of  the  last  century,  and  seriously  entered  upon  a  policy  of  expan- 
sion about  twenty  years  ago,  moved  alike  by  their  new  sense  of 
national  self-consciousness  and  national  pride,  to  which  the  Ger- 
mans added  the  substantial  interests  of  missionary  and  commer- 
cial activity.  In  method  they  differed  most  widely.  The  rashness 
of  the  Italians  on  the  Red  Sea  littoral  brought  them  into  conflict 
with  Abyssinia,  the  strongest  of  all  native  African  states,  and  their 
crushing  defeat  at  Adowa  on  March  i,  1896,  put  an  end  to  Italian 
expansion.  The  Germans  proceeded  with  scientific  thoroughness 
and  diplomatic  skill,  and  have  encountered  no  native  organization 
capable  of  very  serious  resistance,  though  they  have  experienced 
the  usual  difficulties  of  native  wars,  like  that  in  southwest  Africa, 
which  are,  in  fact,  difficulties  in  finding  the  native  enemy,  rather 
than  in  defeating  him  when  found.  The  Italian  possessions  on 
the  Red  Sea,  organized  as  the  colony  of  Eritrea,  extend  from  the 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  northwestward  about  670  miles  along 
the  coast,  embracing  an  area  of  88,000  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  450,000.  From  the  straits  southward  and  eastward  the 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  is  occupied  by  French  Somaliland  and 
the  British  Somali  Coast  Protectorate.  Thence  eastward  about 
150  miles  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  Cape  Guardafui,  and  southward 
for  1000  miles  on  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  boundary  of  British 
East  Africa  the  coast  region  is  occupied  by  Italian  Somaliland,  with 
an  area  of  100,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  400,000.  This, 
like  Eritrea,  is  bounded  toward  the  interior  by  Abyssinia. 

German  Africa  consists  of:  Togoland,  between  the  French 
colony  of  Dahomey  and  the  British  Gold  Coast  colony,  narrowing 
to  a  frontage  of  32  miles  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  with 
an  area  of  33.000  square  miles,  and  900.000  inhabitants;  Kamerun, 
a  wedge-shaped  territory  between  British  Nigeria  and  French 
Congo,  broadening  toward  the  interior  from  its  coastal  frontage 
of  199  miles  on  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  and  including  a  narrow  north- 
ern extension  to  Lake  Chad,  with  a  total  area  of  191,000  square 
m']\c<  rind  ;i  ])M],ul;iiiMn  of  350.000:  German  \Vest  Africa,  occupy- 
ing 93(j  miles  of  tlic  Atlantic  coast,  exclusive  of  the  British  holding 


MINOR     POSSESSIONS 


;j()l 


1800   1910 


at  Walfish  Bay,  from  the  Portu<^-iicsc  colony  of  Angola  southward 
to  the  boundary  of  Cape  Colony,  at  the  Oranj^e  River,  with  an 
area  of  322,000  square  miles  and  200,000  inhabitants:  German 
East  Africa,  with  a  coast  line  of  620  miles  on  the  Indian  Ocean 
between  Portuguese  East  Africa  and  British  East  Africa,  extend- 
ing inland  westward  to  Eakes  Xyassa  and  Tanganyika,  and  nortli- 
westward  to  Lake  Victoria,  having  an  area  of  384,000  square  miles 


SWAnm 


GERMAN  TERRITORY  IN  THE  EASTERN  HEMISPHERE 


and  a  population  of  6.750.000.  In  addition  the  Germans  have  a 
foothold  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  and  extensive  possessions  in  the 
Pacific.  Tlic  former  was  obtained  by  their  seizure  of  the  p(-^rt  and 
bay  of  Kiau-Chau  on  the  east  coast  of  the  province  of  Shan-tung 
in  November.  1897.  upon  the  ])retext  i>f  avenging  outrages  up- .n 
German  missionaries.  Germany  had  joined  Russia  and  France  in 
coercing  Japan  to  forego  the  fruits  of  her  victory  over  Cliina  in 
1895,  and  tliis  was  doubtless  her  wages  for  that  service,  and  the 


302  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1800-1910 

Chinese  Government  was  easily  forced  to  concede  to  Germany,  in 
March,  1898,  a  lease  of  the  district  for  ninety-nine  years.  Forth- 
with the  territory  was  organized  as  a  protectorate  under  a  naval 
officer  as  governor.  Its  area  is  200  square  miles  and  its  population 
60,000,  and  it  is  surrounded  on  the  landward  side  by  a  neutral 
zone  of  2500  square  miles  with  1,250,000  inhabitants.  The  Ger- 
mans entered  upon  the  development  of  their  new^  possession  with 
characteristic  thoroughness,  improving  the  harbor,  securing  con- 
cessions for  railways  and  coal  mines  in  the  neighboring  territories, 
and  planning  for  the  establishment  of  a  self-governing  European 
settlement ;  but  the  unexpected  military  and  naval  strength  of  Japan, 
and  her  victory  over  Russia,  make  it  certain  that  further  German 
expansion  in  China  is  not  to  be  hoped  for. 

German  activity  in  the  Pacific  goes  back  to  the  first  year  of 
colonial  expansion.  In  1884  the  northeastern  part  of  New 
Guinea  (Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land),  with  the  neighboring  Bismarck 
Archipelago,  was  annexed,  and  in  1885  the  Marshall  Islandsw 
Upon  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  empire  in  the  Pacific  by  the 
cession  ct  the  Philippines  and  Guam  to  the  United  States,  its  rem- 
nants, the  Caroline  Islands.  Pelew  Islands,  and  ]\Iarianne  or 
Ladrone  Islands  were  purchased  by  Germany.  All  these  acquisi- 
tions, with  the  Solomon  Islands,  near  the  Bismarck  Archipelago, 
gave  the  Germans  extensive  and  fairly  continuous  possessions  in 
the  western  Pacific.  The  two  largest  islands  of  the  distant  Sanioan 
group,  v^here  German  commercial  interests  had  long  been  of  im- 
portance, were  added  in  1899- 1900  by  an  agreement  with  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britian  which  terminated  the  tripartite  control 
previously  exercised  in  Samoa  by  the  three  powers.  The  total 
;irca  of  these  possessions  is  about  96,000  square  miles,  with  427,000 
inhabitants,  of  wiiich  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land  and  the  Bismarck 
.\rchipelago  together  contribute  90.000  square  miles  and  nearl}' 
300.000  inhabitants.  All  lie  within  the  tropics,  and  their  govern- 
ment and  development  is  still  a  heavy  charge  upon  the  imperial 
treasury,  with  the  promise  of  only  moderate  returns  after  many 
years  nf  effort. 

In  a  very  brief  period  Germany,  from  having  no  colonies  at  all, 
rose  to  the  third  place  among  colonial  powers,  measured  by  the  num- 
ber of  subject^  in  her  dependencies.  The  first  machinery  for  their 
government  \vas  tlie  cliarterc'l  commercial  company,  but  this  sev- 
enteenth century  dc\-ice  soon  gave  way  to  direct  imperial  control, 


MINOR     POSSESSIONS  30f3 

1800  1910 

except  in  the  Marshall  Islands.  This  step  was  finally  taken  in 
New  Guinea  in  1899.  Togoland  and  Kamerun  were  under  direct 
imperial  control  from  the  first.  Authority  in  each  colony  is  cen- 
tralized in  the  hands  of  the  governor,  who  is  commander  in  chief 
and  chief  judge  of  the  court  of  last  resort,  and  is  rcsi)onsil)le  to 
the  colonial  department  of  the  imperial  foreign  office  and  through 
it  and  the  chancellor  to  the  empen^r.  A  colonial  council  of  ex- 
perts summoned  hy  the  chancellor  advises  him  in  colonial  affairs. 
Commercially  the  colonies  enjoy  the  treatment  accorded  by  the 
mother  country  to  the  most  favored  nation.  Coloin'al  tariffs  are 
low  and  upon  a  revenue  basis,  and  by  international  agreements 
some  of  the  African  possessions  enjoy  full  freedom  of  trade.  Sub- 
sidized steamship  lines  keep  u])  commum'cation  v.'ith  Germany, 
but  the  volume  of  colonial  trade  has  disappointed  the  herpes  of  the 
expansionists,  in  rcs])ect  to  both  production  and  consumption.  The 
native  is  not  eager  to  work  or  to  buy  German  goods,  and  German 
opinion  is  leaning  toward  tlie  policy  of  compelling  him  to  the 
former.  Tn  colonial  administration  Germany  is  distinguished  by 
reliance  upon  scicntitic  training  and  thorfjugh  knov/lcdge.  by  main- 
tenance of  rigid  discipline,  the  ])crpctualion  o\  the  social  casles  of 
the  home  land,  and  by  the  usupJ  faults  of  bureaticrac}-.  The  Ger- 
man emigrant  leaves  the  fatherland  to  escape  this  kind  of  govern- 
ment, and  chooses  the  L'nited  States  or  South  Atncrica  for  settle- 
ment, rather  than  the  cok«nies.  Tn  the  first  case  he  is  absorljcd  in 
Anglo-Saxondom,  and  in  the  last  the  ])owcr  of  tliC  L.'nited  States. 
;ind  tiicir  policy  of  exchuling  luirojican  interference  in  the  west- 
ern hcniisjjiiere.  in  accordance  with  tlie  ?\lonroc  Doctrine,  forbids 
the  cstablisInnciU  of  Germrm  so\-ercignty  o\-or  r^crman  settlements. 
In  either  ca<c  tlic  rc>ult  is  exasi)crat!ng  to  th.e  ex|);in,>io!n"sts.  Tk.e 
cok'ni;'!  ci\il  ^cr\'ice  is  friirK'  \rvc  fri'in  f:i\oritisin  in  ar.oi 'jntmciit 
and  i^iromi'tion  and  is  sni)jcct  to  rigi'l  di-ci]Tl;r.e.  Acadc.r.ic  (juali'i- 
catior:>  were  at  lir<L  much  m  crwiliK'il.  bnt  in  iSo<.)  a  -pec;;:'  coloinal 
school  was  founded  at  W'itzciip.anscn.  near  Gintnigcn.  f' ir  tl^:  prac- 
tical training  "\  cxjjcns  in  cojunial  gowriiniciu  an-i  exploitation. 
The  exjiansion  of  l\r.^-ia  ca'^tward  o\  or  nortiicrn  Asia  and  the 
colonial  acti\"it\"  of  Jap;ni  in  l-'iirniosa  il'i  U' 'i  c  'Uic  within  tlic  scope 
of  tiiis  \-o1unic.  To  complete  the  story  of  ITn-opcan  colonization 
w.-e  nn!<t  gw'c  ;in  ,'irco;ijit  of  the  L'nitcd  States  as  the  ruler  of 
licpenncncics  o\-cr.-'ca. 


Chapter    XVIII 

COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE 
UNITED    STATES.    1867-1910 

THE  experience  of  the  United  States  as  a  colonial  power 
is  as  yet  very  brief,  and  the  first  century  of  national 
independence  witnessed  but  one  hesitant  step  in  the  new 
path,  though  circumstances  were  not  wanting  which  seemed  to  open 
it,  nor  leaders  willing  to  guide  the  nation  therein.  At  the  close 
of  the  Mexican  War  the  annexation  of  all  ^Mexico,  with  its  large 
population  of  alien  blood  and  inferior  civilization  was  advocated 
by  some  members  of  President  Polk's  Cabinet,  but  this  policy  was 
rejected  by  the  President,  who  contented  himself  with  the  extension 
of  the  territory  westward  to  the  Pacific.  The  new  acquisition  was 
indeed  vast  in  area,  but  its  position  and  scant  population  seemed  to 
insure  its  occupation  by  our  American  citizens  and  its  incorporation 
in  the  Union  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  existing  States,  a  destiny 
in  part  unfulfilled  for  half  a  centuiy,  but  reasonably  certain  of  ulti- 
mate accomplishment.  The  treaty  of  cession  (1848)  accordingly 
promised  such  incorporation  of  the  Mexican  inhabitants  of  the 
ceded  territory,  following  the  precedent  of  the  third  article  of  the 
treaty  with  France  ceding  to  the  United  States  the  vast  Louisiana 
territory,  which  was  in  these  words :  "  The  inhabitants  of  the  ceded 
territory  shall  be  incorporated  in  the  Union  of  the  United  States, 
and  admitted  as  soon  as  possible,  according  to  the  principles  of  the 
I'ederal  Constitution,  to  the  enjo3'ment  of  all  the  rights,  advantages, 
and  imnuinities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  and  in  the  mean- 
time they  sIkiII  be  maintained  and  protected  in  the  free  enjoyment 
of  their  liljcrly,  j)n^])erty,  and  tlie  religion  which  they  profess."  ^ 

Tlie  same  intent  to  organize  newly  acquired  territory  as  States 
with  full  and  equal  powers,  was  expressed  in  the  Spanish  treaty 
ceding  Florida  in  1819,  in  all  stages  of  the  proceedings  for  ceding 
to  the  United  States  the  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  River, 
especially  in  the  i.rdinancL'  (jf  1787,  and  in  the  uniform  practice  of 

^  '■  Uiiilc'J    States   Treaties  and    Cfinventions."    i88g,   p.   3;v2. 
.304 


UNITED     S  T  A  T  E  S  305 

1867-1910 

tlie  government  in  dealing  with  the  Territories  down  to  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War,  unless  the  Indian  Territory  be  excepted.  It  is 
true  that  the  United  States  has  had  dependencies  from  the  first, 
and  has  expanded  enormously  by  the  acquisition  of  new  territory, 
but  this  dependence  was  intended  to  be  temporary,  and  the  new 
territory  was  contiguous  and  lay  open  to  the  settlement  of  its  own 
people  under  the  familiar  conditions  of  complete  self-government 
in  local  affairs  and  an  equal  share  in  the  government  of  the  nation. 
These  conditions,  especially  the  last,  were  the  ground  of  the  opposi- 
tion by  the  anti-expansionists  of  1803  to  the  purchase  of  Louisiana. 
They  were  unwilling  to  be  governed  by  senators  and  representatives 
from  beyond  the  IMississippi.  The  wonderful  success  of  the  Ameri- 
can people  in  occupying  these  vacant  lands  and  erecting  new  com- 
monw'ealths  therein  makes  up  a  great  part  of  the  national  historv. 
Here,  however,  we  are  concerned  with  the  acquisition  and  govern- 
ment of  territory  which,  by  reason  of  climate,  or  distance,  or  the 
existence  of  a  large  native  poj)ulation  of  alien  blood  and  inferior 
civilization,  is  unsuited  to  the  methods  employed  in  expanding  from 
the  Alleghanics  to  the  Pacific.  The  ethnical  difiiculty  was  en- 
countered in  dealing  with  the  Intlians,  but  was  ])ostp<^ned  for  a 
century  by  their  forcible  removal  and  segregation  on  resen'ations 
or  in  the  Indian  Territory.  Even  for  them  incorporation  or  exter- 
mination seem  now  to  be  the  only  alternative-^. 

The  first  dependency,  in  the  sense  abme  indicated,  acquired 
by  the  United  States  was  Alaska.  TIic  Russian  ])ossessions  on 
the  northwest  coast  dated  from  the  discoveries  of  Bering  in  1741. 
followed  by  occupanc}',  and  their  claims  had  at  (»nc  time  been  ex- 
tended as  far  sontli  as  San  I'rancisco  I'a}-.  The  region  was  remote 
from  Russia,  of  little  value  in  her  hands,  and  not  caj)able  of  defense 
ag'ainst  an  enemy  powerful  at  sea.  In  the  Crinican  W'a.r  Russian 
and  Briti.^li  \ortli  America  had  bcni  ncutra'i/cd  by  agi'eemcnt. 
btit  tlie  growing  pijwor  of  Canada,  w'l'i-c  uirK'ii  \\a<  forming  while 
the  Akiskan  treat \'  was  n;i<kT  neii'  ii,,;:<  11.  \\:;s  a  menace  fur  tlic 
fnttu'c  and  cession  to  the  L'niled  Siate-^  an  t'a>y  .and  j)r(.ttitable  way 
out  of  the  threatened  danger.  Th.c  time  a!-*)  was  })rupitious,  the 
charter  of  the  Russian  Americin  Company  lia\i;;g  expired  in  1861. 
as  was  tlie  temper  and  pc>licy  of  the  man  to  whom  the  foreign  affairs 
of  the  United  States  were  committed.  William  H.  .Reward.  Secre- 
tarv  <.)f  St;ite  ntider  Pre-idents  l.iiiC'iln  and  jchn-^i'n,  \\a^  by  tem- 
perameni   and   e''n\icti'in   ;in   arden:    ex[ian-i' 'Ui.-i.   and   enihnsi;i>ii- 


S06  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

cally  anticipated  the  time  when  all  the  North  American  continent 
and  even  more  remote  regions  would  belong  to  the  United  States. 
The  purchase  of  Russian  America  had  been  discussed  in  1859  and 
an  offer  of  $5,000,000  made  for  the  territory.  The  friendly  rela- 
tions of  the  two  nations  during  the  Civil  War  and  pending  negotia- 
tions as  to  fishing  rights  and  the  fur  trade  led  to  a  renewal  of  the 
project  in  1867.  Negotiations  for  the  purchase  were  begun  at 
Washington  in  March  of  that  year,  the  treaty  was  signed  on  the 
30th,  and  ratifications  exchanged  June  20.  The  price  was 
$7,200,000  in  gold,  the  area  of  the  ceded  territory  590,000  square 
miles,  and  the  population  probably  about  30,000,  for  the  most  part 
Esquimaux  and  Indians.  The  Senate  and  the  country  were  taken 
by  surprise  when  the  treaty  was  negotiated,  and  the  new  acquisi- 
tion was  received  witli  not  a  little  ridicule,  which  might  have  been 
fatal  to  the  project,  but  for  the  general  desire  to  please  Russia. 
The  third  article  of  the  treaty  secured  to  the  inhabitants,  except 
the  uncivilized  native  tribes,  admission  to  the  enjoyment  of  all 
the  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  the  free  enjoyment 
of  their  liberty,  property,  and  religion,  but  nothing  was  said  of 
incorporation  in  the  Union.  Seward's  expansion  policy  does  not 
seem  to  have  included  any  well-considered  scheme  for  the  govern- 
ment of  distant  dependencies,  but  the  usual  territorial  organiza- 
tion was  ill-suited  to  this  vast  region,  distant  500  miles  by  sea, 
with  a  white  population  of  insignificant  numbers.  Congress,  there- 
fore, in  1868,  merely  extended  the  revenue  laws  to  Alaska,  regu- 
lated the  fur  trade  and  the  fisheries,  and  gave  to  the  federal  district 
courts  of  California  and  Oregon  and  the  territorial  district  courts 
of  Washington  jurisdiction  of  cases  arising  there.  The  Act  of  May 
17,  1884.  established  the  "civil  and  judicial  district  of  Alaska," 
under  a  governor  appointed  by  the  President  and  exercising  execu- 
tive pciuer,  with  a  district  court  for  judicial  business.  Congress 
retained  the  legislative  power  in  its  own  hands  and  extended  to  the 
district  the  existing  general  laws  of  Oregon  so  far  as  they  were 
locally  apj.ilicable.  1'his  form  of  government  was  substantially 
preserved  by  the  Act  of  June  6,  1900,  which  also  provided  a  civil 
code  and  a  code  of  civil  procedure.  A  penal  code  was  enacted  by 
Congress  ?>larc]i  3,  1899. 

For  many  years  the  only  consideral)lc  industries  of  Alaska 
were  the  fislicries  and  the  fur  trade.  1"o  prevent  the  threatened 
extinction  of  the  fur  seal  tlie  United  States  rhiimed  exchisivc  juris- 


U  .\  1  T  El)     S  T  A  T  K  S  :;()7 

18b7-1910 

diction  over  the  waters  of  Berinn^  Sea,  and  seized  several  British 
vessels  engag-ed  in  sealing  there.  The  resulting  controversy  was 
settled  by  arbitration,  in  1893,  adversely  to  the  claims  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  methods  of  seal  killing  were  regulated  by  agree- 
ment, in  order  to  ))roserve  llic  seals.  At  the  time  of  its  purchase 
the  population  of  th.c  new  lerriiory  was  small,  and  the  census  of 
1880  showed  a  total  of  33.42r),  of  whom  only  430  were  whites.  In 
1890  the  figures  were  32,052  and  4,298,  and  in  1900,  63,592  and 
30.493  respectively.  Idie  increase  was  due  to  the  influx  of  miners 
to  the  gold  fields.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in  quantit}-  in  1880 
upon  a  tributary  of  the  Yukon  (Forty  Mile  Creek)  near  the  Can- 
adian border.  In  1896  digc^ings  of  great  richness  were  opened 
in  Canadian  territory  on  another  tributary,  the  Klondike.  A  great 
inrush  of  gold-seekers  followed.  The  only  available  approach  to 
these  Canadian  gold  fields  was  by  sea  to  the  licad  of  Lvnn  Canal: 
thence  overland  through  Alaskan  Territory.  'Idie  Canadians  now 
set  up  a  claim  thai  the  international  boundarv  ought  to  be  so 
drawn  as  to  cross  the  Lynn  Canal,  and  gi\"c  Canada  a  port  on 
tide  water.  71ie  justice  of  this  claim  dci)cndcd  u})ou  the  construc- 
tion of  the  language  of  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty  <n'  1825,  which 
provided  that  the  line  should  follow  the  summit  of  the  mountains 
parallel  to  the  coast  from  56  north  latiiuilc  northward  :  b:U  wIxtc- 
ever  the  sunimit  was  more  than  ten  marine  leai;uc-  ivov.i  the 
ocean  the  boundary  shotdd  be  ]~)arallc!  to  the  windings  i^f  tlie  coast 
and.  shotdd  never  exceed  ten  marine  IciV-^ne-  tlK'rei':''Mn.  The  terri- 
tory in  contr ')\'<TSv  was  actua!l\'  in  th"  i)o-^cs-:on  of  the  l'n;:ed 
Stated.  In  1808  a  joint  Iiigh  e')ninii- .-!■ 'M  wa<  furnu^d  lo  ;iilju-'-  .■:!1 
differences  l)etween  Canada  and  tiie  C'liicd  Siaic-,  bt'.i  no  cuni- 
promise  c>f  tlie  qne^tion  wa-  crfccled  ;  tl'c  c  iin'ni--inn  ;idj  /.r'u'ng  in 
1S99.  A  ;iu)(his  7-i:\-i-i{!.  Ica\-ing  tlic  e>^-.cn;;;d  p.  irtion  >■'  tlv.-  terri- 
tory in  dispute  in  the  liands  of  ihc  Cni'.ed  Si:i:cs,  was  agre;  -1  up  >n 
October  20,  i89();  :i  treaty  being  signed  Jann.ary  24,  T003.  provi.l- 
ing  for  tile  settlenaent  b_\-  a  corninis^ion  o\  >\x  jin-i>;s.  tliree  lo-lu- 
appointed  bv  each  p:irt-v-.  Tin's  coniini^-ion,  on  (  (etober  20,  l''K)3. 
determined  in  fa\or  of  the  United  States. 

On  lainiarx'  18,  Toio.  ]n\\^  wre  iiUr^  "I-'.-'eii  in  \\n'  Senate,  embody- 
ing the  I're-^idcnt's  Alaskan  recommcnd;ition-. 

The  second  outlving  dependency  acipiired  1)y  the  I  nited 
States  n-as  ;d^o  in  'lie  1'aeific.  The  Sandwich  r,r  Hawaiian  Qrouj). 
Iving  half  wav  belwien  Xorth  America  and  Asia,  has  since  Cook's 
time  been  more  fatndiar  than   any  other  to   han-opean   sailor^,  and 


308  C  O  L  ()  \  I  E  S     OF     T  H  E     W  0  R  L  D 

French  settlers  were  among  the  first  to  take  up  their  abode  in  a 
climate  which  proved  peculiarly  inviting  to  Europeans.  For  three 
or  more  generations,  Europeans  and  Americans  have  been  set- 
tling in  the  Sandwich  Islands;  and  by  the  operation  of  what  seems 
an  unfailing  natural  law  the  native  race  has  been  all  this  time 
quickly  diminishing.  Long  since  it  was  obvious  that  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  must  at  no  very  distant  time  become  a  purely  Euro- 
pean colony,  and  French  politicians  lost  no  opportunity  of  attempt- 
ing to  secure  the  upper  hand.  Their  chief  obstacle  lay  in  the 
influence  of  the  American  Protestant  missionaries,  who  began  their 
labors  in  the  islands  in  1820.  The  leanings  of  the  reigning  family 
of  the  Kamehamehas  were  rather  American  than  French ;  and  the 
first  constitution,  promulgated  in  1840,  w^as  revised  in  1852,  on 
the  most  liberal  scale,  granting  free  suffrage  and  dividing  the 
legislature  into  two  houses.  This  gave  a  decided  preponderance  to 
American  principles  and  interests.  In  1842,  Daniel  Webster,  then 
Secretary  of  State,  officially  recognized  the  independence  of  the 
Hawaiian  kingdom  and  declared  "  as  the  sense  of  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  that  the  Government  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 
ought  to  be  respected ;  that  no  power  ought  to  take  possession  of 
the  islands  either  as  a  conquest  or  for  the  purpose  of  colonization ; 
and  that  no  power  ought  to  seek  for  any  undue  control  over  the 
existing  government,  or  any  exclusive  privileges  or  preferences 
in  matters  of  commerce."  - 

This  declaration  was  needed  to  protect  the  islands  from  seizure 
by  European  powers.  American  commercial  and  missionary  in- 
terests were  preponderant  there  and  would  suffer  if  exclusive  privi- 
leges were  given  to  any  other  power.  The  policy  thus  declared 
was  affirmed  in  President  Tyler's  message  to  Congress  of  Decem- 
ber 30,  1842.  Nevertheless  the  provisional  cession  of  the  islands 
to  Great  Britain  was  forced  in  the  following  February,  where- 
upon the  American  minister  to  England  was  instructed  that  tlie 
United  States  might  feel  justified  in  interfering  by  force  to  prevent 
their  falling  by  conquest  into  the  hands  of  a  European  power.  On 
July  31  the  British  admiral  withdrew  his  forces,  and  in  the  same 
year  France  and  England  recognized  the  native  government  and 
agreed  never  to  take  possession  of  the  country  directly  or  indi- 
rectly.    To  the  colonial  ambitions  of  France  the  islands  remained 

-  Wharton,  "  Digest  of  International  Law  of  the  United  States,"  2  cd..  vol. 
'•-  417- 


UNITED     STATES  309 

1867    1910 

nevertheless  a  tempting  prize.  As  early  as  1839  a  French  naval 
force  had  by  threats  of  war  interfered  in  behalf  of  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries,  and  in  1850  and  the  following  years  French  intrigues 
in  the  islands  called  forth  vigorous  diplomatic  remonstrance  from 
the  United  States,  Secretary  of  State  Marcy  going  so  far  as  to 
indicate,  as  the  ultimate  destiny  of  the  country,  annexation  to  the 
United  States,  which  by  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon  boundary  in 
1846  and  the  cession  of  California  in  1848,  had  acquired  new  com- 
mercial and  military  interests  in  the  Pacific. 

Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  second  empire  in  France, 
the  princes  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  visited  Europe.  They  felt 
highly  complimented  by  the  attentions  of  so  important  a  monarch 
as  Napoleon  III.,  and  permitted  him  to  dispatch  some  French  poli- 
ticians to  take  the  command  of  their  affairs  at  home.  These  men 
were  in  constant  communication  with  the  subtle  emperor;  and, 
incredible  as  it  may  seem,  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  planned  a 
coup  d'etat  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  with  the  same  views  as  the 
more  famous  and  disastrous  one  of  Mexico.  No  sooner  were  the 
States  of  America  involved  in  the  Civil  War  than  the  French  poli- 
ticians, taking  advantage  of  the  opportune  death  of  King  Kame- 
hameha  IV.,  induced  his  successor  to  forcibly  abolish  the  old  liberal 
constitution  in  1864  and  promulgated  a  new  one  on  a  far  narrower 
basis,  disfranchising  all  the  iloating  population  and  Chinese. 
Trivial  though  this  stroke  of  policy  may  seem  to  Europeans,  it 
was  disastrous  in  its  effects  on  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  people 
soon  Ijegan  to  ckiiiKjr  for  the  constitution  of  1852.  and  on  the 
death  in  1S72  of  the  last  of  the  Kameliamehas,  a  kinsman  of  that 
family  was  elected  on  the  understanding  that  the  constitution 
should  be  restored.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  King  Lunalilo's 
short  reign  was  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the  United 
States,  and  U)  invite  the  Americans  to  construct  a  dockyard  and  fix 
here  a  ])crinanent  naval  station,  so  that  tlie  "Latin  protectorate*' 
was  at  an  end  as  regards  the  Sandwich   Islands. 

Lunalilo  died  I'ebruary  3,  1874.  and  Kalakaua  was  elected 
to  the  tlirone  b_\'  the  lc\u,islature.  i  le  suon  vi-^ited  the  United 
States,  and  in  1875  a  treaty  of  reciprocity  between  the  two  coun- 
tries was  framed,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was  the  free  admission 
of  Hawaiian  sugar  to  ti;e  American  market.  The  treaty  was  in 
fiu'tlicrance  of  American  t  la.'liti' uia.l  policy  toward  the  islands,  and, 
iioiw  iih-iaiiMiiiL:'  ilic  od]).  ^-iii. -n  <.f  protected  iii!cre-t>  in  th.e  L'niicd 


310  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

States,  was  duly  ratified  and  in  1887  was  renewed  and  enlarged. 
In  the  last  named  year  the  progressive  party  secured  from  the  king 
the  grant  of  a  new  constitution,  depriving  the  Crown  of  legislative 
power,  making  members  of  the  house  of  nobles  elective  and  the 
ministry  responsible  to  the  legislature.  Kalakaua's  sister  Liliuoka- 
lani  succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  his  death  in  1891.  She  adopted 
a  reactionary  policy  and  in  January,  1893,  contemplated  the 
promulgation  of  a  new  constitution,  disfranchising  foreigners  and 
restoring  the  royal  power.  The  American  element  thereupon  de- 
throned the  queen  by  a  bloodless  revolution,  an  American  naval 
force  having  been  landed  in  Honolulu,  organized  a  provisional 
government,  which  was  immediately  recognized  by  the  American 
minister,  and  applied  for  annexation  to  the  United  States,  whose 
minister  proclaimed  a  protectorate  over  the  islands  on  February 
9.  A  treaty  of  annexation  was  sent  to  the  Senate  by  President 
Harrison,  but  was  withdrawn  by  President  Cleveland  soon  after 
his  inauguration  in  ]\larcl].  A  special  commissioner  was  sent  to 
the  islands  to  investigate  the  circumstances  of  the  revolution  and 
the  participation  of  the  American  forces  therein,  and  upon  his 
report  that  its  success  was  wholly  due  to  the  landing  of  American 
troops  the  President  refused  to  again  submit  the  treaty,  and 
opened  negotiations  witli  l.iliuokalani  for  the  restoration  of  the 
status  existing  before  the  revolution  on  condition  of  complete 
amnesty  for  those  participating  in  it.  To  this  neither  the  queen 
nor  the  provisional  government  would  consent.  Tlie  American 
protectorate  was  withdrawn  and  the  Hawaiian  republic  maintained 
itself  for  four  years  as  an  independent  nation,  but  upon  the  re- 
turn of  the  Republican  party  to  power  in  the  United  States  a 
new  treaty  of  annexation  was  negotiated  and  submitted  to  tlie 
Senate  June  iT),  1897.  it  met  with  determined  opposition,  and  its 
ratification  by  tlie  Senate  could  not  be  obtained.  The  outbreak  of 
ilic  Sp,'ini>h-Americ;'n  War  in  A[)ril,  1898.  c;;mc  opjiortunely  to  the 
aid  of  ilie  annexationists.  Hawaii  offered  tlie  use  of  the  harbor  of 
Honolulu  to  tlu'  American  na\"al  and  miliuiry  forces,  and  rc])]ie(l 
to  the  renion.-tr;ince  of  Spain  b\-  declaring  tiiaL  the  island  republic 
had  no  intention  of  remaining  neutral.  Tlie  precedent  set  in  the 
case  of  1"cxas  was  now  followed  by  the  passage  of  a  joint  resolu- 
tion (jf  C(jngre:^^  in  July,  annexing  tlie  isl.'inds  to  the  L'nitcd  States. 
Tn  T900  ;i  go\crnm(  nt  \\a-  e>{;J)hVl;LMl  of  i!jc  rcgul-n-  'I'cn-itorial 
t^-r)e.  with  a  i,''o\'ernor.   who  niu'-t  l)c  a  cirizc-n  i'\  i\\v  \A:in(\>.  aai-] 


UNITED     STATES  Sll 

1867-1910 

judges  of  the  Territorial  courts  appointed  by  tlie  president,  a  legis- 
lature of  two  houses  elected  by  voters  qualified  by  ability  to  speak, 
write,  and  read  the  English  or  Hawaiian  language,  and  an  Ha- 
waiian delegate  in  Congress.  The  customs  laws  of  the  United 
States  were  also  extended  to  the  islands.  These  institutions  are 
adapted  to  the  ultimate  incorporation  of  Hawaii  into  the  Union  as 
a  State,  but  the  mixed  character  of  the  population  makes  the  wis- 
dom of  such  a  step  questionable.  By  the  census  of  1900,  out  of  a 
total  of  154,001  the  native  Hawaiians  were  29.834,  part  Hawaiians 
7835,  Chinese  25.742,  Japanese  58,500,  whites,  of  wliom  a  ma- 
jority in  1890  were  Portuguese,  28,533.  There  is  an  excellent 
system  of  schools  and  ninety-eight  per  cent,  of  the  children  are  in- 
structed in  the  English  language.  The  main  industry  is  sugar- 
making  for  the  American  market.  Since  the  appointment  on  June 
25,  1907,  of  Chief  Justice  W.  F.  Frear  as  governor  of  Hawaii,  the 
administration  of  affairs  has  been  attended  by  nothing  of  impor- 
tance. On  February  i(),  1909,  arrangements  were  completed  for 
the  establishment  of  a  large  military  station  in  Hawaii.  This  is 
second  only  to  the  one  in  the  Philippines.  Pearl  Harbor  was 
finally  selected  as  the  most  desirable  location  for  this  station,  on 
November  ii^  1909. 

W'ithin  a  year  the  United  States  accpiircd  direct  sovereignty 
or  temporary  control  over  extensive  tropical  regions  with  a  popula- 
tion of  about  10,000,000.  Though  the  war  with  Spain  was  caused 
by  questions  concerning  Cuba,  its  most  notable  results  were  in  the 
old  Spanish  East  Indies,  consisting  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 
We  have  seen  how  these  islands  were  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese Magalhaes,  while  in  the  Spanish  service.  They  were  con- 
quered by  Lcgaspi  for  Spain  in  15^)5  and  the  years  inunodiately 
following.  W'ithin  fort}-  years  tlie  natives,  except  the  ^Nloham- 
niedans  of  the  southern  islands  and  the  wild  lri])es  of  the  remote 
interior,  were  Christianized  and  ci\-i!i/:ed.  This  success  was  flue 
in  part  to  the  lack  of  an}-  strong  social  oi-  religifms  bond  among 
them  and  the  coridnnation  of  daring  and  coiiciliition  by  wdiich 
the  Spaniards  trirned  the  nati\e  v.-eadaicss  to  their  own  purposes. 
These  pm-poses  were  cliicily  religions,  and  the  methods  used 
were  not  unlike  tl^i'-c  omnloyefl  in  the  missions  of  California 
and  Paraguay.  "I'he  na  lives  were  gathered  into  villages 
(piicblos)    under    the    guidance    and    control    of    tlie    friars,    who 


ai2  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

permitted  no  intrusion  by  Europeans  or  intercouse  with  them. 
Each  family  paid  a  tribute  of  eight  reals,  about  one  dollar,  and  in 
addition  the  natives  were  subject  to  a  certain  amount  of  forced 
labor  on  public  works,  but  the  clergy  resolutely  and  effectively 
stood  between  them  and  the  Spanish  rulers,  securing  their  general 
humane  treatment,  supervising  agriculture  and  administering 
works  of  education  and  charity.  Their  rule  in  the  pueblos  was 
mild  but  despotic.  For  the  most  part  they  were  "  regular  "  clergy, 
/.  e.,  friars  belonging  to  some  one  of  the  great  orders,  and  were 
bitterly  jealous  of  the  "  seculars."  The  chief  ecclesiastical  author- 
ity in  the  islands  was  the  archbishop,  whose  court  had  jurisdiction 
of  cases  arising  under  the  canon  law.  A  commissioner  of  the  Holy 
Inquisition  also  resided  in  the  islands  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
true  faith.  Other  high  ecclesiastical  officers  were  three  bishops 
and  the  heads  of  the  great  orders  of  friars,  Augustinians,  Francis- 
cans, Jesuits,  Dominicans,  and  Recollets.  Their  power  and  influ- 
ence over  the  civil  organization  was  very  great.  The  latter  was 
modeled  upon  the  Spanish  colonial  governments  in  America,  having 
at  its  head  the  governor  general,  whose  autocratic  powers  were 
but  slightly  limited  by  his  obligation  to  seek  the  advice  of  the  su- 
preme court  {audiencia)  in  matters  of  great  importance  and  by 
the  fear  of  an  official  inquiry  (residencia)  into  his  conduct  by  his 
successor.  Under  him  were  the  provincial  governors  {alcaldes 
may  ores)  and  under  them  the  petty  governors  (gobernadocillos) 
of  the  pueblos.  These  were  natives  chosen  by  their  countrymen. 
Each  pueblo  was  divided  into  groups  of  forty  or  fifty  families 
called  barangays.  They  were  survivals  of  the  native  clans,  and 
were  each  under  a  head  man.  The  few  Spanish  towns  were  organ- 
ized as  municipalities.  ■Manila  in  1603  was  a  fortified  town  with 
churches  and  public  buildings  of  stone,  a  college,  hospitals,  and 
other  charitable  institutions. 

Something  has  been  said  of  the  trade  of  the  Philippines  witli 
the  Mexican  port  of  Acapulco.  At  first  commerce  was  unrestricted, 
but  Spain  feared  the  competition  of  Chinese  silks  in  her  American 
colonies  and  adopted  protective  measures,  forbidding  in  1587  the 
.shipment  (jf  Cliinese  cloths  from  Mexico  to  Peru,  and  in  1591 
all  direct  trade  between  South  America  and  China  or  the  Philip- 
pines. In  1593  trade  wiili  Mexico  was  limited  to  two  ships  of  300 
tons  annually,  exports  to  be  not  over  $250,000,  and  imports  not 
over  $500,000  (S500.000  and  Si.ooo.ooo  respectively  after  1734), 


UNITEDSTATES  313 

1867-1910 

and  the  trade  with  China  was  restricted  to  Chinese  merchants. 
Chinese  goods  imported  into  Mexico  must  be  consumed  there. 
Direct  trade  with  Spain  by  a  public  vessel  was  begun  in  1766. 
These  restrictions  effectually  prevented  the  commercial  develop- 
ment and  fiscal  independence  of  the  islands.  Up  to  1784  the  deficit 
in  their  accounts  was  made  up  out  of  the  budget  of  Mexico. 

It  was  inevitable  that  this  system  of  social  and  commercial 
isolation  should  cease.  In  the  Seven  Years'  War  the  English  took 
Manila,  but  restored  it  at  the  peace.  In  1785  the  monopoly  of  the 
trade  with  Spain  was  granted  to  the  Royal  Philippines  Company, 
and  after  that  time  the  islands  gradually  became  known  to  the 
world.  In  1809,  during  the  alliance  with  England  against  Napo- 
leon, an  English  commercial  house  was  even  allowed  to  establish 
itself  at  Manila;  and  in  1814  the  same  liberty  was  allowed  to  all 
foreigners,  so  that  a  new  era  for  the  islands  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  with  the  present  century.  The  year  1830,  which  wit- 
nessed the  cessation  of  the  company's  charter,  was  an  important 
epoch  in  their  history.  In  1855  four  new  ports  were  opened,  and 
in  1869  a  reduction  in  the  tariff  caused  a  considerable  increase  of 
trade.  The  change  from  the  missionary  to  the  mercantile  spirit 
undermined  the  authority  and  intluence  of  the  friars  and  excited 
discontent  among  the  natives.  In  1780  the  government  established 
the  system  of  enforcing  the  culture  of  tobacco,  indigo,  and  silk, 
which  it  bought  at  an  arbitrary  and  nominal  price  and  sold  in 
Europe  at  a  profit,  thus  getting  a  considerable  part  of  its  revenue. 
Like  the  culture  system  of  the  Dutch  in  Java,  this  produced 
misery  among  the  natives,  corrupted  the  officials,  discouraged  pri- 
vate enterprise,  and  debased  the  quality  of  the  product. 

The  last  of  the  forced  cultures,  tobacco,  was  abolished  in 
1882.  1^0  the  discontent  arising  from  economic  causes  there  was 
added  the  desire  for  wider  political  privileges.  The  Spanish  Con- 
stitution of  18 12  had  granted  to  tlie  Filipinos  representation  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes,  and  the  restoration  of  absolutism  in  Spain  in  1814 
was  the  signal  for  a  revolt  in  the  islands.  The  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  brought  with  it  closer  commercial  connections  with 
Europe,  and  young  men  from  the  islands  sought  education  at  the 
European  universities,  chief  among  them  being  the  distinguished 
author  and  ])hysician,  Jose  Rizal.  Thus  the  reform  movement 
found  stimulus  and  leadership,  but  it  yet  lacked  organization. 
ALasonic  lodij'es,   !ir^L   insiiluted   in    1800.   became  centers   of  anti- 


314  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

186r-1910 

clericalism  and  the  Philippine  League  was  created  to  seek  political 
reforms  by  legitimate  means. 

After  the  Revolution  of  1868  the  Spanish  people  seemed  at 
length  to  be  awakening  to  the  necessity  of  doing  something  to  pre- 
serve their  colonies.  The  republican  minister,  Moret,  in  1870 
formed  a  scheme  for  teaching  Philippine  officials  the  native 
language,  as  well  as  something  of  the  Indian  and  colonial  policy 
pursued  by  England  and  Holland.  But  the  abuses  of  which  the 
natives  complained  were  not  reformed,  and  for  discontent  the 
obsolete  Spanish  system  had  no  remedy  save  repression.  In  1872  a 
conspiracy  of  the  native  troops  was  discovered,  and  on  suspicion 
of  implication  therein  many  Filipinos  of  influential  families  were 
punished  by  execution  or  banishment.  The  malcontents  then 
organized  a  secret  society,  the  Katipunan  or  League,  which  plotted 
revolution  and  aimed  to  expel  the  friars  from  the  islands  and  con- 
fiscate their  lands.  The  Spaniards  got  news  of  the  plot  against 
them.  In  1892  they  banished  Rizal  and  in  1895  and  1896  hun- 
dreds of  other  natives  shared  his  exile.  Nevertheless  the  natives 
rose  on  August  19,  1896,  under  the  leadership  of  Andres  Bonifacio 
and  Emilio  Aguinaldo,  and  committed  fearful  atrocities  upon  the 
friars  who  fell  into  their  hands,  for  which  the  Spaniards  retaliated 
with  barbarous  ferocity,  one  instance  of  which  was  the  execution 
of  Rizal,  who  had  been  under  close  surveillance  in  the  island  of 
Mindanao  and  had  had  no  opportunity  to  communicate  with  the 
insurgents.  The  rebels  had  taken  the  Spaniards  by  surprise,  but 
were  in  great  need  of  arms,  and  in  1897  their  organized  resistance 
liad  been  broken,  leaving  to  Spain  the  wearing  task  of  hunting  down 
their  guerrilla  bands.  Governor  general  Primo  de  Rivera  came  to 
terms  with  their  leaders  by  the  so-called  Treaty  of  Biacnabate, 
December  14,  1897,  the  exact  terms  of  which  are  unknown. 
Aguinaldo  and  other  leaders  were  to  receive  a  large  sum  of  money 
and  to  leave  the  country,  while  the  natives  asserted  and  the 
Spaniards  denied  that  reforms  were  also  promised.  Aguinaldo 
and  his  associates  went  to  Singapore  and  Hong  Kong.  Of  the 
sum  promised  them  they  received  only  $400,000,  which  was  after- 
ward used  to  carry  on  the  insurrection.  No  reforms  were  carried 
out,  and  tlie  persecution  of  the  native  leaders  continued,  as  did  the 
guerrilla  warfare. 

Meanwhile  Cuban  affairs  were  approaching  a  crisis,  and  in 
1897  a  representative  of  the  "  Philippine  Republic,"  believing  war 


1867   1910 


UNITED     STATES 


315 


between  the  United  States  and  Spain  to  be  imminent,  approached 
Wildman,  the  American  minister  at  Hong  Kong,  with  the  offer 
of  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  and  a  request  for  arms  and 
ammunition.  The  offer  was  declined,  but  on  the  actual  outbreak 
of  war  on  April  21,  1898,  Aguinaldo  had  a  conference  at  Singapore 
on  April  24  with  Pratt,  United  States  consul  at  that  port,  and 
was  by   him   sent   to   Hong   Kong   to  arrange   with   Commodore 


PHIUPPIHE  ISLANDS 


O 

t* 


Dewey,  the  American  naval  commander,  for  cooperation  in  the 
Philippines.  On  ]\Iay  i,  Dewey  entered  Manila  Ray.  destroyed 
the  Spanish  fleet  witliout  losing  a  man.  and  had  the  city  of  ^Manila 
at  the  mercy  of  his  guns.  On  the  following  day  Aguinaldo 
reached  Hong  Kong,  and  on  the  i^th  was  sent  to  ^lanila  on  the 
V.  S.  S.  McCuUocJi  with  Dewey's  consent.  On  his  arrival  he  took 
command  of  the  insurgents,  was  pennitted  by  Dewey  to  arm  them 
from  the  captured   Spanish  arsenal  at  Cavite,  got  control  of  the 


316  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

province  of  Cavite,  and  invested  the  city  of  Manila.  Not  until 
July  was  there  a  sufficient  force  of  American  troops  to  attempt 
offensive  operations  on  land.  On  August  13  the  city  was  cap- 
tured by  the  forces  of  the  United  States  and  the  Filipino  army 
was  excluded  from  it.  A  peace  protocol  had  already  been  signed 
(August  12),  providing  among  other  things  that  the  United  States 
should  hold  the  city,  bay,  and  harbor  of  Manila  pending  negotia- 
tions for  a  treaty  of  peace.  For  more  than  four  months  more  the 
armies  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  insurgents  maintained  the 
same  relative  positions,  each  suspicious  of  the  other.  In  June, 
Aguinaldo  had  organized  a  government  and  issued  a  provisional 
constitution  claiming  full  independence.  In  the  peace  negotiations 
at  Paris  the  United  States  demanded  the  cession  of  the  Philippines, 
offering  $20,000,000  in  compensation,  and  a  treaty  to  that  effect 
was  signed  on  December  10,  but  met  with  great  opposition  in  Amer- 
ica by  the  so-called  "  anti-imperialists,"  many  of  whom  were  men 
of  great  influence  in  political  life  and  in  unofficial  public  leadership. 
They  believed  that  the  cession  could  be  made  effective  only  by  con- 
quest, that  the  purchase  of  unwilling  subjects  violated  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  that  a  democratic 
republic  cannot  govern  distant  dependencies  with  safety  to  itself  or 
justice  to  its  foreign  subjects,  and  that  all  the  practical  difficulties 
of  the  situation  would  be  met  by  a  native  government  under 
American  protection.  The  supporters  of  the  administration  in 
reply  argued  that  American  sovereignty  was  necessary  to  save  the 
islands  from  anarchy  or  from  seizure  by  some  European  power, 
and  was  justifiable  to  secure  for  the  United  States  the  commercial 
and  strategic  advantages  which  would  result  from  their  occupa- 
tion. On  December  21,  1898,  General  Otis  was  instructed  to  pro- 
claim American  sovereignty  over  the  Philippines,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  the  military  government  over  the  whole  archipelago.  He 
issued  the  proclamation  January  4,  1899,  modifying  its  terms  to 
conciliate  the  natives.  Aguinaldo  replied  by  a  counter-proclama- 
tion, asserting  independence,  and  soon  began  preparations  for 
hostilities.  In  the  same  month  the  President  appointed  five  com- 
missioners, headed  by  Jacob  G.  Schurman,  president  of  Cornell 
University,  and  inchiding  the  commanders  of  the  military  and 
naval  forces,  to  inquire  into  conditions  in  the  islands  and  con- 
ciliate the  natives. 

On  the  night  of  February  4  a  collision  of  outposts  led  to  a 


UNITED     STATES  317 

1867-1910 

general  attack  by  the  natives  on  the  American  lines,  which  was 
repulsed  with  great  slaughter,  and  on  February  6  the  treaty  of 
cession  was  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate.  For  the  war 
thus  begun  the  United  States  was  inadequately  prepared,  a  large 
part  of  their  troops  being  entitled  to  discharge,  so  that  a  new 
force  must  be  enlisted  and  transported  from  America  to  take  their 
places.  In  the  meantime,  Iloilo,  Cebu,  and  other  points  in  the  Vis- 
ayan  Islands,  between  Luzon  and  Mindanao,  together  with  Jolo  in 
the  Sulu  Archipelago  southwest  of  Mindanao, had  been  occupied,  and 
the  American  lines  about  Manila  and  Cavite  extended.  In  October 
the  new  army  began  its  forward  movement  against  the  natives, 
whose  military  strength  and  political  organization  was  centered  in 
the  great  plain  of  central  Luzon,  between  Manila  Bay  on  the  south 
and  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen  on  the  north.  The  Americans  were  every- 
where successful,  and  before  the  close  of  November  the  remnants 
of  the  Filipino  army  and  government  officers  were  driven  into  hiding 
in  the  mountains.  In  December  and  January  their  organized 
forces  in  Cavite  and  the  adjacent  provinces  south  of  Manila  met  a 
like  fate.  By  the  end  of  March  garrisons  were  established  in  the 
great  island  of  ^Mindanao,  and  the  organized  native  forces  in  the 
Visayan  Islands  scattered.  All  open  resistance  was  at  an  end,  but 
a  harassing  guerrilla  warfare,  accompanied  by  the  torture  and  mur- 
der of  friendly  natives,  dragged  on  for  two  years  more,  Aguinaldo 
was  finally  captured  on  March  2^,  1901,  by  a  native  force  under 
General  Funston  in  the  guise  of  a  body  of  rebel  troops.  On  April 
2  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States,  and  on  the 
19th  issued  an  address  to  his  countrymen  counseling  submission. 
The  last  guerrilla  leaders  surrendered  in  April,  1902,  and  on  July 
4,  1902,  President  Roosevelt  issued  a  proclamation  granting 
amnesty  to  the  insurgents,  except  the  Moros  of  the  southern 
islands,  on  condition  of  their  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance.  The 
United  States  had  first  and  last  sent  123,903  men  to  the  Philip- 
pines. By  October  15,  1903,  the  American  troops  had  been  reduced 
in  number  to  1  5.5  10,  besides  a  force  of  native  scouts  under  American 
officers  numbering  4805,  and  peace  and  security  were  established 
throughout  the  archipelago  except  for  local  disturbances  among 
the  wild  Moro  tribes  of  tlie  south.  These  ^lohammedan  tribes  had 
been  left  a  large  degree  of  independence  during  the  Spanish  regime 
under  their  nati\-e  sultan-,  of  whom  the  Sultan  of  Jolo  or  Sulu  was 
the  most  important.     The  sultan's  rule  was  nominally  despotic,  but 


318  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

in  lact  the  actual  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  dattos,  or  local 
chiefs.  The  Spanish  garrison  at  Jolo  was  replaced  by  American 
troops  ]\Iay  19,  1899,  and  General  Bates  negotiated  a  treaty  with 
the  sultan,  who  recognized  American  sovereignty  and  agreed  to 
suppress  piracy  in  return  for  a  promise  of  protection,  certain 
monthly  payments  in  money,  and  a  promise  that  the  Sulu  Archi- 
pelago sliould  never  be  transferred  to  any  other  power  without  his 
consent.  By  a  special  clause  the  United  States  withheld  its  ap- 
proval from  the  existence  of  slavery  in  the  islands.  In  1902  and 
1903  Moro  attacks  upon  American  troops  engaged  in  exploration 
occasioned  hostilities  on  a  small  scale  in  the  interior  of  Mindanao, 
where  the  Spanish  authority  had  never  penetrated.  In  dealing 
with  all  these  Mohammedan  tribes  and  with  the  still  more  savage 
heathen  tribes  of  the  interior  the  United  States  attempted  to  super- 
vise and  control  tribal  governments  rather  than  individuals,  after 
the  precedent  set  by  dealings  with  the  Indians  in  America.  Ex- 
perience proved  that  the  Sultan  of  Jolo  was  unable  to  restrain  the 
dattos,  or  to  carry  out  his  agreement,  and  a  new  method  of  govern- 
ment for  the  Sulu  Moros  was  established  by  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission (June  I,  1903),  with  the  approval  of  the  military  com- 
mander, designed  to  control  the  dattos  without  the  intervention  of 
the  sultan,  and  to  deal  directly  with  the  practice  of  slavery. 
General  Leonard  Wood  was  selected  for  military  commander  and 
civil  governor  of  Sulu  under  this  statute,  and  his  inauguration  of 
the  new  government  met  with  resistance  from  some  of  the  dattos, 
which  was  sharply  put  down. 

The  establishment  of  civil  government  in  the  Christian  islands 
kept  pace  with  the  extension  of  the  American  military  lines.  The 
first  Philippine  Commission  reported  on  January  31,  1900,  in  favor 
of  a  Territorial  government,  the  largest  possible  employment  of 
Filipinos  in  the  civil  service,  and  the  rigid  maintenance  of  the  merit 
system  of  appointment  and  promotion.  In  March  a  system  of 
municipal  government  was  created  by  military  order,  resting  upon 
the  suffrage  of  former  village  and  municipal  officeholders,  tax- 
payers, and  persons  who  could  speak,  read,  and  write  English  or 
Spanish. 

On  April  7  the  President  appointed  a  second  Philippine 
commission  of  five  civilians  under  the  presidency  of  William  II. 
Taft.  with  legislative  power  for  the  islands  beginning  September 
I,  1900.     They  were  to  establish  a  judicial  system,  provincial  and 


UNITED     STATES  819 

1867-1910 

local  governments,  promote  education,  organize  a  civil  service  on 
the  lines  laid  down  by  the  first  commission,  and  report  when  the 
central  administration  could  safely  be  transferred  from  military  to 
civil  control.  The  provisions  of  the  American  Bill  of  Rights  except 
as  to  carrying  arms  and  jury  trial,  were  to  be  enforced.  On  March 
I,  1901,  the  "  Spooner  Amendment"  to  the  Army  Appropriation 
Bill  empowered  the  President  to  provide  for  the  government  of  the 
Philippines  at  his  discretion.  On  July  4,  1901,  Commissioner  Taft 
was  inaugurated  as  civil  governor  of  the  Philippines  with  executive 
power  over  the  pacified  districts,  and  on  September  i,  four  executive 
departments,  one  under  each  of  the  other  commissioners,  were 
organized  and  three  Filipinos  added  to  the  commission.  On  July 
4,  1902,  civil  government  displaced  the  military  power  through- 
out the  archipelago  except  among  the  Moros.  On  July  i,  1902, 
Congress  passed  the  Philippines  Civil  Government  Act,  confirm- 
ing all  that  had  been  done  by  the  President  and  the  commission, 
providing  for  the  taking  of  a  census,  and  the  creation,  wnthin  two 
years  thereafter,  of  an  assembly  elected  by  the  people,  except  the 
Moros  and  other  non-Christian  tribes,  to  constitute  with  the 
commission  a  legislature  for  the  islands,  whose  acts  are  subject 
to  annulment  by  Congress.  Voters  are  to  be  qualified  as  above 
stated  for  municipal  elections.  Two  resident  commissioners  to 
the  United  States  are  to  be  chosen  biennially  by  the  legisla- 
ture, each  house  voting  separately,  and  shall  be  entitled  to  ofiicial 
recognition  as  such  by  all  departments.  The  established  judicial  or- 
ganization, consisting  of  a  supreme  court  and  courts  of  first  instance, 
is  confirmed,  and  the  provisions  of  the  Jjill  of  Rights,  with  the 
exceptions  above  noted,  are  guaranteed.  The  civil  governor,  vice- 
governor,  members  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  heads  of  execu- 
tive departments,  and  justices  of  the  supreme  court  are  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President  by  and  w^ith  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 
The  insular  government  is  empowered  to  purchase  the  lands  of 
the  friars  and  hold  tlicm  or  lease  or  sell  them  to  the  occupants. 
This  transaction  has  been  eft'ected,  and  with  the  substituticMi  of 
secular  clergy  in  the  place  c^f  the  friars  will  remove  the  greatest 
source  of  discontent  among  the  people. 

The  census  of  March  2,  1903,  showed  a  population  of  7.635.- 
426,  of  whom  6.087.686  were  civilized.  There  are  about  25.000 
Europeans  and  100.000  Chinese  in  the  islands.  The  uncivilized 
tribes  include  the  Mohammedan  Moros  and  the  heathen  peoples  of 


320  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

the  mountains,  who  are  in  different  stages  of  barbarism.  Of  the 
eight  civihzed  tribes  the  most  numerous  is  the  Visayan.  The 
islands  He  wholly  within  the  tropics,  extending  for  locx)  miles  from 
Formosa  southward  to  Borneo  and  the  Moluccas,  and  are  1725  in 
number,  the  largest  being  Luzon  (47,238  square  miles)  and 
Mindanao  (36,237  square  miles),  which  are  about  equal  in  size 
to  the  States  of  New  York  and  Indiana  respectively.  The  total 
land  area  is  estimated  at  115,026  square  miles,  which  is  only 
slightly  less  than  New  England,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey  taken 
together.  Of  the  total  of  76,616,640  acres,  about  12,000,000  are 
private  and  61,000,000  public  property;  40,000,000  acres  of  the 
latter  are  forest  lands  and  the  remainder  arable,  though  much  of 
the  forest  lands,  if  cleared,  could  be  cultivated.  The  homestead 
laws  permit  any  citizen  to  acquire  39.54  acres  by  occupancy  and  im- 
provement for  five  years.  The  soil  is  rich  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
archipelago.  The  chief  products  are  abaca,  from  which  Manila  hemp 
is  made,  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  copra,  cacao,  and  rice.  Foreign  com- 
merce had  increased  threefold  since  1894,  and  eighty-two  per  cent, 
since  1898.  The  total  amount  of  imports  and  exports  in  1902  was 
about  $62,000,000,  of  which  about  one-fourth  represents  the  trade 
with  the  United  States.  The  mineral  resources  are  considerable: 
gold  and  iron  are  actually  mined  in  Luzon,  and  coal  and  lead  in 
Cebu. 

The  natural  wealth  of  the  islands  needs  only  labor  for  its 
development,  and  competent  observers  believe  that  with  good  man- 
agement it  can  be  supplied  in  fair  quantity  and  quality  by  the 
Filipinos.  As  a  people  they  are  intelligent  and  aspiring,  and  owing 
to  the  devotion  of  the  friars  they  share  to  some  extent  the  Christian 
and  social  ideals  of  Europe  and  America,  a  fact  which  raises  them 
above  any  other  tropical  people.  They  are  eager  for  education, 
and  a  comprehensive  common  school  system  has  been  established 
under  American  supennsion.  Under  Governor  Taft  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Governor  Wright,  the  government  has  been  administered 
wholly  in  the  interest  of  the  natives  and  to  a  large  extent  by  native 
officers,  all  the  presidentes  of  the  towns  and  thirty  out  of  the  thirty- 
nine  provincial  governors  being  Filipinos;  useful  public  works  have 
been  undertaken,  many  railway  routes  located,  telegraphic  com- 
munication witli  the  United  States  opened  by  the  Pacific  cable,  the 
vexatious  question  of  the  friar  lands  settled,  and  the  cost  of  admin- 
istration kept  well  within  the  revenue.     Newcomers  in  the  field  of 


UNITED     STATES  321 

1867-1910 

colonial  administration  have  no  reason  to  be  ashamed  of  such  a 
record.^ 

The  other  possessions  of  the  United  States  in  the  Pacific  may 
be  dismissed  with  brief  mention.  The  island  of  Guam  or  Guahan, 
the  largest  in  the  Marianne  or  Ladrone  group,  and  lying  about  1500 
miles  east  of  Luzon,  was  seized  by  Captain  Glass  of  the  U.  S.  S. 
Charleston  on  June  20,  1898,  and  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Spain  and  the  United  States.  It  is  about  200  square  miles 
in  area,  and  has  a  population  of  9000,  chiefly  Filipinos.  It  will 
be  valuable  as  a  coaling  station  and  serves  as  a  landing  station  for 
the  cable  from  San  Francisco  and  Honolulu  to  the  Philippines. 
Certain  outlying  islands  north  and  south  of  the  Philippines  which 
had  been  inadvertently  omitted  from  the  cession  in  the  treaty 
of  peace  were  ceded  by  a  new  treaty  in  1900  for  the  sum  of 
$100,000. 

The  beginnings  of  American  influence  in  the  Samoan  Islands, 
in  the  South  Pacific,  2600  miles  south  and  west  from  Honolulu  and 
1900  miles  north  and  east  from  Auckland  in  New  Zealand,  were 
made  in  1872,  when  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago  was  ceded  by  the 
natives  for  a  naval  and  coaling  station.  In  1878  this  cession  was 
confirmed  and  rights  of  extra-territorial  jurisdiction  acquired.  Ger- 
man commercial  interests  existed  in  the  islands  and  wars  between 
rival  kings  led  to  joint  intervention  in  1879  by  the  United  States, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  In  1889  tlie  three  powers  entered  into 
a  treaty  guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  the  islands  and  equal  rights 
therein,  providing  for  the  independence  of  the  native  government, 
creating  a  supreme  court,  etc.  Renewed  strife  among  the  natives 
induced  President  Cleveland  to  advise  in  1894  that  the  United 
States  withdraw  from  the  tripartite  agreement.  In  1899  the  death 
of  the  king  and  a  disputed  election  to  the  throne  brought  matters 
to  a  crisis,  and  in  January.  1900,  the  United  States  entered  into  an 
agreement   with   Germany  and   Great   Britain,   whereby  the   latter 

■''For  an  unfavorable  criticism  of  American  admini-lration  in  the  Philip- 
pincs  see  two  articles  nnder  this  tilh'  in  the  Outlook  (  X.  V.),  Vol.  LXXVIIL.pp. 
1026  and  1082  (Dec.  24  and  31,  i<)04),  by  Alleyne  Ireland.  Mr.  Ireland  thinks 
that  there  is  no  hope  of  the  naiives  developins:;  jxilitical  capacity  snfhcient  "to  make 
good  use  of  the  self-government  which  is  otYered  to  them:  that  native  labor  is 
untrustworthy,  and  the  importation  of  Chinese  labor  essential  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  islands:  that  the  administration  is  too  expensive,  the  effort  spent  on  educa- 
tion for  the  most  part  misdirected  and  disproportionately  large  as  compared  with 
the  development  of  profitable  public  works,  and  tb.e  standard  of  training  in  the 
colonial  civil  service  too  low. 


322  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-19IO 

withdrew  and  the  archipelago  was  divided  between  Germany  and 
the  United  States,  the  former  taking  the  islands  west  of  171°  west 
longitude,  and  the  latter  those  east  of  it,  including  Tutuila,  with 
the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago.  Tutuila  has  an  area  of  about  54  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  3800.  The  other  islands  belonging  to  the 
United  States  are  about  25  square  miles  in  area,  with  a  population 
of  2000.  On  April  17,  1900,  the  chiefs  of  the  islands  signed  an 
instrument  of  cession  and  the  United  States  took  possession  of  Pago 
Pago.  A  naval  governor  for  Tutuila  was  appointed  in  February, 
1900. 

The  Philippines  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States 
by  the  chance  of  war.  No  influential  body  of  opinion  before  the 
war  with  Spain  expected  or  desired  dependencies  in  those  distant 
and  unknown  Asiatic  seas.  With  the  West  Indies  the  case  was 
different.  The  islands  of  the  Carribbean  are  closely  related  to  the 
North  American  continent  by  geographical  nearness  and  com- 
mercial intercourse,  a  relationship  upon  which  turned  in  large 
measure  the  international  policy  of  the  colonial  powers  of  Europe 
until  1763,  the  position  of  the  thirteen  American  colonies  in  the 
British  empire,  their  revolt  and  independence.  For  the  new  nation 
West  Indian  affairs  held  from  the  beginning  a  prominent  place  in 
diplomacy,  and  the  Antilles  offered  a  field  for  American  expansion 
from  an  early  day,  especially  the  great  island  of  Cuba,  lying  so  close 
to  the  American  coast.  With  the  rise  of  the  slavery  question  in 
the  United  States  the  sentiment  for  the  annexation  of  Cuba  be- 
came identified  in  the  minds  of  Northern  men  with  the  policy  of 
slavery  extension,  and  thus  received  a  decisive  check  until  slavery 
was  abolished  as  a  result  of  the  Civil  War.  Notwithstanding  the 
fierce  domestic  controversies  excited  by  the  grave  problems  of 
reconstruction,  the  programme  of  West  Indian  expansion  was 
resumed,  under  the  leadership  of  William  H.  Seward,  Secretary  of 
State,  by  his  offer  (July  17,  1866)  of  $5,000,000  in  gold  for  the 
Danish  West  Indies.  A  treaty  was  concluded,  October  25,  1867, 
for  the  purchase  of  the  islands  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  for 
the  sum  of  $7,500,000  subject  to  the  consent  of  the  inhabitants. 
Notwithstanding  a  prompt  ratification  by  Denmark  and  a  vote  of 
acceptance  by  the  islanders,  the  treaty  was  rejected  by  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1868  under  the  leadership  of  Charles  Sumner, 
who  was  hostile  to  President  Johnson's  administration  on  recon- 
struction issues.     A  like  fate  befell  a  treaty  for  the  annexation  of 


UNITED     STATES  323 

18671910 

the  republic  of  Santo  Domingo,  negotiated  in  the  first  year  of 
President  Grant's  first  administration.  The  Cuban  insurrections  of 
1 868- 1 878  and  1895- 1898  kept  the  question  of  expansion  in  the 
West  Indies  before  the  public  until  the  intervention  of  the  United 
States  involved  the  country  in  war  with  Spain.  The  self-denying 
clause  of  the  joint  resolution  of  Congress  for  intervention,  dis- 
claiming any  intention  to  annex  Cuba,  was  silent  as  to  Porto  Rico, 
and  soon  after  the  fall  of  Santiago  an  expedition  under  General 
Miles  landed  at  Guanica,  on  July  25,  1898.  It  was  enthusiastically 
welcomed  by  the  people,  overran  the  greater  part  of  the  island 
without  serious  resistance,  and  was  prevented  from  achieving  a 
complete  conquest  only  by  the  signing  at  Washington  of  a  peace 
protocol  (August  12,  1898)  by  the  terms  of  which  the  island  was 
to  be  ceded  to  the  United  States. 

The  history  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  nineteenth  century  is  un- 
eventful. It  beat  off,  in  1797,  an  attack  by  an  English  fleet, 
shared  in  the  revolt  against  Napoleon's  usurpation  in  Spain,  in 
the  privileges  of  the  Spanish  Constitution  of  1812,  in  the  suffer- 
ing under  the  restored  absolutism  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  in  the 
revolutionary  movement  which  followed  throughout  Spanish 
America,  but  the  declaration  of  independence  issued  by  the  repub- 
lican junta  was  ineffectual,  and  the  royal  authority  was  fully  re- 
stored in  1823.  Numbers  of  loyalists  from  the  revolted  conti- 
nental colonies  found  refuge  in  the  island,  strengthening  the 
reactionary  policy  of  the  government.  The  Spanish  revolution  of 
1868  restored  to  Porto  Rico  the  privilege  of  representation  in  the 
Cortes  at  ^Madrid,  and  decreed  the  freedom  of  all  children  thereafter 
born  of  slave  mothers,  but  it  was  not  until  1873  that  slavery  was 
entirely  abolished.  The  Cuban  revolt  of  1S95  was  accompanied  by 
political  unrest  in  Porto  Rico,  which  led  to  many  arrests  and 
the  formation  of  a  revolutionary  junta  of  exiles  in  New  York. 
The  autonomous  constitution  conceded  by  the  royal  decree  of  No- 
vember 25,  1897,  never  had  a  fair  trial,  and  was  suspended  on  the 
outbreak  of  war  with  the  United  States.  The  evils  of  the  Spanish 
colonial  government  in  Porto  Rico  were  like  those  of  which  the 
Cubans  complained,  l)ut  the  economic  C(»n(litions  of  the  smaller 
island  were  more  healthful.  I'he  slaves  were  never  numerous  in 
proportion  to  the  whole  population :  tlie  island  is  much  smaller  than 
Cuba,  and  has  a  nuicli  dcn>cr  population;  the  sugar  estates  are 
comparatively  small,  and  cniplo}   but  few  laborers,  and  as  there  is 


324  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

186r-19l6 

little  or  no  waste  land,  everyone  in  the  island,  as  in  Barbados, 
must  either  work  or  starve. 

After  the  American  conquest  Porto  Rico  was  under  military 
government  for  nearly  two  years,  during  which  time  many  re- 
forms were  undertaken.  Vaccination  was  introduced,  the  courts 
reorganized,  the  prisoners  in  the  crowded  jails  tried  or  set  free,  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  introduced,  a  system  of  common  schools 
begun,  and  popular  municipal  governments  created.  A  system  of 
internal  taxation,  devised  by  Prof.  Hollander  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  was  later  adopted  by  the  legislature.  The  transfer  of 
the  island  from  Spain  to  the  United  States  put  it  outside  the  Spanish 
tariff  system,  closing  the  Spanish  market  to  its  products  and  not 
opening  any  compensating  market  in  America.  Upon  the  urgent 
recommendation  of  President  McKinley  the  customs  duties  between 
Porto  Rico  and  the  United  States  were  removed,  but  in  order  to 
provide  revenue  pending  the  adoption  of  a  permanent  system  of 
taxation,  the  operation  of  the  removal  was,  at  the  request  of  the 
military  governor,  suspended  as  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  those  duties. 
The  industrial  depression  caused  by  the  temporary  lack  of  an 
export  market  was  heightened  by  a  very  destructive  hurricane  which 
swept  over  the  island  from  end  to  end  on  August  8,  1889,  which  was 
followed  by  torrential  rain  and  a  tidal  wave  on  the  south  coast. 
It  killed  2700  people,  reduced  over  100,000  to  absolute  destitution, 
destroyed  fully  two-thirds  of  the  coffee  crop,  and  seven-tenths 
of  all  crops  on  the  island.  An  appeal  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States  for  help  was  generously  responded  to,  and  supplies  to  the 
value  of  over  $800,000  were  distributed  to  the  sufferers,  and  the 
expenditure  of  $950,000  on  military  roads  was  authorized  by  the 
war  department  to  afford  employment  for  those  in  need  of  relief. 
On  Alay  i,  1900,  the  government  was  transferred  to  the  civil  au- 
thorities. The  political  constitution  set  up  by  the  act  of  Congress 
approved  April  12,  1900,  confides  the  executive  power  to  a  governor 
and  an  executive  council  of  eleven  members,  six  of  whom  are  high 
administrative  officers,  all  appointed  by  the  President  for  four  years. 
The  executive  council,  of  whom  at  least  five  must  be  natives  of 
Porto  Rico,  forms  the  upper  house  of  the  legislature.  The  house 
of  delegates,  or  lower  chamber,  is  chosen  by  voters,  who  must 
have  paid  taxes  or  be  able  to  read  and  write.  The  voters  also  choose 
a  resident  commissioner  to  the  United  States.  The  area  of  the 
island  is  3668  square  miles,  less  than  four-fifths  that  of  Connecticut. 


U  N  I  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  E  S  325 

186r-1910 

The  present  governor  of  Porto  Rico,  Col.  G.  R.  Colton,  was 
inaugurated  November  6,  1909.  The  President  submitted  to  Con- 
gress an  amended  organic  act  for  Porto  Rico,  on  January,  29,  1910. 
believing  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  making  changes  in  its 
government.  Congress  passed  the  tariff  bill  governing  Porto 
Rico,  on  July  9,  1909,  and  August  2,  the  Senate  confirmed  it.  The 
chief  product  of  the  island  is  cofifee.  Other  important  products 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  vegetables.  The  bulk  of  the  island's 
trade  is  now  with  the  United  States. 

We  may  properly  add  here  a  brief  account  of  Cuban  affairs 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  ending  in  the  armed  intervention  of  the 
United  States  and  the  control  of  the  island  by  the  American  military 
government,  pending  the  creation  of  an  independent  Cuban  republic. 
The  history  of  Cuba  since  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  proves 
that  the  Spanish  Government  has  not  been  altogether  so  blind  and 
senseless  as  might  be  supposed  from  the  history  of  Spanish  ^America 
in  general.  It  would  indeed  have  been  extraordinary,  if  the  course 
of  events  in  the  neighboring  island  of  Hayti,  tlie  landing  of  the 
French  in  1807,  the  proclamation  of  Ferdinand  VII.  by  the  Span- 
iards in  Cuba  in  1808,  the  terrible  rising  of  the  slaves  under  Aponte 
in  1 81 2,  and  the  successive  revolutions  which  were  convulsing 
Spanish  America,  had  not  taught  even  the  Spanish  Government 
an  obvious  lesson.  Cuba  had  always  been  thought  a  valuable 
colony.  Its  value  was  at  once  increased  manifold  by  the  ruin  of 
the  trade  of  Hayti,  and  the  Cadiz  regency  would  have  been  blind 
indeed  not  to  see  that  it  was  worth  preserving.  In  181 3  Cuba  was 
liberated  from  the  bonds  of  the  old  colonial  system.  Her  ports 
were  thrown  open,  the  Constitution  of  Cadiz  was  proclaimed,  and 
Cuban  representatives  were  summoned  to  tlie  Cortes.  The  repre- 
sentation, which  was  of  little  use,  was  abolished,  but  the  other 
concessions  were  afterward  confirmed  by  the  monarchy.  A  change 
of  hardly  less  importance  to(~ik  ]:)lace  in  181 5.  when  the  govern- 
ment monopolv  of  tobacco  was  abolished.  This,  as  we  have  seen, 
had  been  one  of  the  most  keenly  felt  grievances  in  all  the  Spanish 
colonics.  The  tobacco  trade  soon  (le\-elo])ed  amazingly,  but  its 
])rogress  was  not  so  surprising  as  that  of  the  sugar  cultivation. 
While  the  rest  (^f  the  famous  old  West  India  sugar  colonies  were 
suffering  misfortune  and  decay.  Cuba  was  enjoying  growth  and 
prospcritv.  About  tlie  time  of  the  I'rcnch  Revolution  Cuba  pro- 
duced annually  about  a  quarter  of  a   million  hundredweights  of 


326  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

sugar;  by  the  year  1820,  this  produce  had  increased  fourfold;  and 
the  produce  fifty  years  later  was  twenty  million  hundredweights 
a  year,  or  eighty  times  as  much  as  at  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

The  effect  of  the  abandonment  of  the  old  colonial  system 
will  be  understood  when  we  consider  that  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 
this  enormous  sugar  crop  went  to  the  United  States,  fifteen  per 
cent,  to  England,  and  less  than  two  per  cent,  to  Spain  itself.  The 
reason  of  this  extraordinary  prosperity  is  obvious.  In  the  first 
place  some  of  the  causes  which,  as  we  have  seen,  depressed  the 
British  West  Indies,  stimulated  the  growth  of  Cuba.  Cuba  long 
enjoyed  the  benefit  of  slave  labor.  Its  vast  plantations  employed 
something  like  half  a  million  slaves,  whose  value  had  gradually 
risen  from  $700  to  $1000  each.  Besides  this,  all  the  stream  of 
Peninsular  emigrants,  who  in  former  times  spread  all  over  Spanish 
America  to  trade  on  the  privileges  which  the  Spaniard  enjoyed  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  Creole,  had  been  for  fifty  years  directed  to  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico.  These  islands,  and  especially  Cuba,  were  thus 
placed  with  regard  to  Spain  in  an  entirely  new  relation.  While 
the  distinction  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Creoles  was  still 
kept  up,  as  strongly  as  it  ever  was  in  jMexico  or  Peru,  the  Spaniards 
far  exceeded  the  Creoles  in  wealth  and  political  influence,  though 
not  in  numbers.  Cuba  was  really  a  republic  of  the  resident  Span- 
iards, holding  the  island  by  a  volunteer  force  raised  among  them- 
selves, and  owning  allegiance  to  the  mother-country  not  because 
the  mother-country  was  able  to  keep  them  under  control,  but  be- 
cause this  nominal  connection  with  the  mother-country  enabled 
them  to  keep  the  Creoles  or  "  Cuban  "  party  under  control.  The 
island,  like  French  Hayti  in  the  old  times,  was  thus  divided  between 
the  Spanish  and  "  Cuban  "  parties.  The  "  Cuban  "  party,  as  in 
Hayti,  consisted  largely  of  mulattoes  and  negroes,  and  was  in 
favor  of  the  abolition  of  slavery;  and  it  seemed  probable  that  if  the 
"  Cubans  "'  should  ever  gain  the  upper  hand,  establish  the  republic, 
and  abolish  slavery,  the  Spaniards  would  leave  the  island,  as  the 
French  planters  left  Hayti  after  llie  abolition  of  slavery  by  the 
1'  rench  Assembly,  leaving  the  Creoles  of  all  shades  of  color  to  fight 
out  tlie  same  battle  which  we  find  presented  in  Haytian  history, 
with  nitich  the  same  results.  L'nfortunatelv  for  humanity,  the  cause 
of  slavery  and  of  unequal  civil  rights  thus  became  in  Cuba  the  cause 
of  law  and  order;  and  during  the  whole  of  the  nineteenth  century 


U  N  I  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  E  S  327 

1867   1910 

the  "  Cubans  ''  were  more  or  less  in  a  state  of  revolt.  Wlien  an 
insurrection  broke  out.  there  were  always  plenty  of  runaway  slaves 
ready  to  enlist  for  the  pleasure  of  shootini;-  their  masters;  and  as 
the  central  and  eastern  departments  afford  an  ample  cover  of  forest 
and  mountain,  it  was  impossible  for  the  Spaniards,  with  their 
limited  army  of  volunteers,  to  put  an  effectual  stop  to  it.  The 
turbulence  of  the  "  Cubans  "  of  course  led  to  increased  stringency 
of  government ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  formidable  risings  of 
1823  and  1829,  the  island  had  to  be  placed  under  what  was  almost  a 
military  despotism.  Under  Captain-General  Tacon,  in  1834- 1838, 
there  was  an  unusual  degree  of  peace  and  prosperity ;  but  the  time  of 
his  successor,  O'Donnell,  was  marked  by  the  well-organized  con- 
spiracy of  1844,  for  participation  in  which  the  famous  Cuban  poet 
Placido  was  executed.  The  European  revolutions  of  1848  were 
soon  followed  by  risings  in  various  parts  of  the  island;  and  in  the 
next  year  it  was  threatened  by  filibustering  expeditions  from  the 
United  States.  In  1850,  Xarcisso  Lopez,  at  the  head  of  one  of 
these  expeditions,  landed  and  took  the  town  of  Cardenas.  He  was 
forced  to  retire ;  and  on  returning  in  the  next  year,  he  was  seized 
and  executed.  In  the  meantime  the  idea  gained  ground  in  Spain 
that  it  would  be  well  to  mitigate  the  despotism  of  Cuba,  and  to 
endeavor  to  get  rid  of  slavery  by  encouraging  emancipation  and 
immigration.  In  185 1  a  governing  council  was  established  in 
Madrid;  and  in  the  time  of  Pezuela  in  1853,  the  first  attempts  were 
made  at  the  systematic  introduction  of  free  lab(M-.  The  "  Cubans  " 
readily  responded  to  these  efforts,  in  the  belief  that  their  cause  was 
gaining  ground  ;  and  tidings  of  the  revolution  of  1868  had  no  sooner 
reached  the  colony,  than  the  standard  of  indejiendence  was  again 
raised  by  Cespedes  and  Diaz,  who  thus  l)egan  the  "  ten  years  war." 
The  S])anish  ])arty.  however,  soon  proN'od  to  be  unmistakably  in  the 
ascendant.  The  massacres  of  Havana  in  1869  checked  all  partici- 
pation in  tlie  nio\-enient  on  the  pan  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital; 
and  the  volunteers  soon  cleared  tlie  whole  western  [)rovince  of  the 
insurgents,  though  several  thousand  men  under  arms,  chieilv  run- 
awav  negroes,  still  continued  to  haunt  tlie  mountainous  districts  of 
the  center.  In  1870  the  Cortes  of  Madrid,  bent  on  lil)eral  measures, 
passed  the  "  .Moret  law."  abolishing  shuery  for  all  negroes  born 
after  1868.  and  emar,ci]iating  all  who  at  that  date  were  sixty  years 
old  and  upward.''  There  was  nothing  in  common  between  the 
Spanish  party  in  the  colony  and.  ihe  leaders  ci  the  Spanish  revo- 
•*  Slavery  finally  became  extinct  in   1887. 


328  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

lution,  and  General   Prim  unsuccessfully   endeavored   to   sell   the 
island  to  the  United  States. 

Intervention  by  the  latter  country  was  narrowly  averted  in 
1873,  after  the  capture  of  the  American  "  filibuster  "  Virgmkis  and 
the  summary  execution  of  fifty-three  of  her  officers  and  men.  In 
the  following  year  the  Spanish  republic  was  overthrown,  and  the 
Bourbon  dynasty  restored.  The  war  in  Cuba  dragged  on  until 
February  10,  1878,  when  the  "  Peace  of  Zanjon  "  was  agreed  to 
and  the  insurgents  laid  down  their  arms  in  consideration  of  reforms 
promised  by  Spain,  but  never  fully  carried  out.  The  discontent  of 
the  patriot  party  smoldered  for  seventeen  years,  and  at  last  broke 
out  into  open  revolt  February  24,  1895.  The  uprising  had  been 
carefully  prepared  and  the  Spanish  were  unable  to  crush  it  by  the 
ordinary  methods  of  warfare..  In  February,  1896,  Don  Valeriano 
Weyler  y  Nicolau,  Marquis  of  Teneriffe,  came  out  as  governor 
and  forthwith  adopted  the  policy  of  forcing  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  island  to  concentrate  in  the  cities  and  fortified  places  in  the 
Spanish  lines.  In  the  course  of  the  following  year,  perhaps  half  a 
million  wretched  non-combatants,  largely  women  and  children,  were 
by  the  enforcement  of  this  order  driven  from  their  homes  after 
their  property  and  means  of  subsistence  had  been  destroyed,  and 
were  herded  together  without  sufficient  shelter,  food,  or  medical 
care  in  the  forts  and  towns,  where  200,000  of  them  died  of  starva- 
tion and  disease.  This  brutal  measure  excited  great  indignation 
in  the  United  States.  In  October,  1897,  Weyler  was  recalled,  and 
on  November  25  an  autonomous  constitution  was  proclaimed.  The 
concession  was  made  too  late.  The  war  prevented  a  fair  trial  of 
the  new  government,  and  the  people  of  the  United  States  were  too 
much  aroused  and  too  distrustful  of  Spanish  purposes  to  allow  a 
sufficient  time  for  the  experiment.  Their  anger  was  increased  by 
the  destruction  of  the  battleship  Maine,  in  the  harbor  of  Havana 
on  February  15,  1898,  with  the  loss  of  two  of  her  officers  and  264 
of  her  crew,  a  disaster  attributed  by  an  American  naval  court  of 
inquiry  to  the  explosion  of  a  submarine  mine  and  by  a  similar 
Spanisli  court  to  an  internal  explosion  of  the  vessel's  magazines. 
On  AjM'il  18  tlie  United  States  made  a  formal  declaration  of  in- 
tervention, demanding  that  Spain  relinquish  her  authority  and 
withdraw  lier  forces,  and  disclaiming  any  intenti(jn  to  exercise 
sovereignty  or  control  in  Cuba  except  for  its  ]:>acification.  and 
promising  when  tliis  should  be  accomplished  to  leave  the  control  of 


UNITED     STATES  329 

18()7   1910 

the  island  in  its  people.  In  the  war  which  followed  the  Spanish 
squadron  under  Admiral  Ccrvera,  in  trying  to  escape  from  the 
harbor  of  Santiago,  was  destroyed  by  the  American  blockading 
squadron  on  July  3,  and  shortly  thereafter  the  town  and  the  Spanish 
army  holding  it  capitulated  to  the  besieging  American  army.  By 
the  peace  protocol  of  August  12,  Spain  formally  relinquished  all 
claim  of  sovereignty  over  and  title  to  Cuba. 

The  American  military  occupation  which  followed  the  peace 
was  charged  with  the  duty  of  pacifying  the  island  and  carrying  on 
its  government  until  the  Cuban  people  should  be  able  to  undertake 
the  task.  The  new  government  was  confronted  with  peculiar  difficul- 
ties and  a  situation  almost  unprecedented.  The  very  foundations  of 
social  order  were  broken  up.  The  country  w^as  impoverished,  indus- 
try paralyzed,  and  large  numbers  of  people  in  danger  of  speedy 
starvation.  The  army  of  independence  was  unpaid,  and  might  prove 
dangerous.  The  hatred  engendered  by  the  long  war  and  by  a 
century  of  oppression  made  necessary  the  protection  of  the  large 
resident  Spanish  population  from  the  vengeance  of  the  Cubans. 
The  people  were  wholly  untrained  in  self-government.  The  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  was  high,  and  schools  were  few  in  number  and 
poor  in  quality.  The  filthy  jails  were  crowded  with  ])risoners, 
many  of  whom  had  been  awaiting  trial  for  years,  and  against  some 
of  wlunii  no  charge  could  ])e  found.  The  sanitary  conditions  of 
the  cities  were  extremely  bad,  and  the  island  was  notorious  as  a 
breeding  place  of  yellow  fe\cr.  11ie  military  gcn'ernment,  under 
General  John  R.  Brooke  until  December  13,  189Q,  and  thereafter 
under  General  Leonard  Wood,  was  brilliantly  successful  in  over- 
coming these  difficulties.  Order  was  restored  and  maintained:  a 
native  rural  guard  and  native  municipal  police  organized  and 
trained;  the  starving  pco])le  icd  and  clothed  until  they  could  resume 
productive  industry;  the  charitable  institnticMis  of  the  island  re- 
organized :  the  Cuban  army  jiaid  and  disbanded ;  the  school  en- 
rollments increased  from  3r).ono  to  180.000;  the  teaching  reformed 
upon  the  best  American  models;  the  jails  cleansed  and  many  of 
the  prisoners  released;  the  eiiies  protected  by  tlie  best  methods  of 
scientific  sanitation;  Havana  transfornunl  fr(Mn  one  of  tlie  least 
to  one  of  the  most  healtliful  of  cities;  and  yellow  fever  entirelv 
stam[)ed  out.  d'lii-  la.-t  brilliant  ac]iie\-eincnt  was  due  to  the  im- 
portant scientific  (li<co\'eries  oi  Major  A\  alter  Reed  and  Majc^r 
W  illiam  C.  Gorgas  and  their  subordinates  of  the  medical  depart- 


830  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867-1910 

ment  of  the  army,  showing  that  yellow  fever  infection  is  carried 
from  diseased  to  healthy  persons  only  by  bites  of  mosquitoes, 
and  may  be  effectually  controlled  by  the  destruction  of  the  in- 
sects and  the  protection  of  the  sick  against  them.  In  the 
course  of  the  investigation  Dr.  Jesse  W.  Lazear,  contract  surgeon, 
heroically  offered  himself  for  inoculation  with  the  yellow  fever 
germ  and  died  of  the  disease.  In  all  the  work  of  administra- 
tion Cubans  were  employed  in  the  civil  service  as  far  as  possible,  in 
order  to  afford  them  a  training  in  the  methods  of  self-government ; 
and  as  a  basis  for  the  political  organization  which  had  to  be  created 
a  census  was  taken,  s'howing  a  population  of  1,572,797,  of  whom 
fifty-eight  per  cent,  were  native-born  whites,  nine  per  cent,  foreign- 
born  whites,  thirty-two  per  cent,  negroes  and  of  mixed  race,  and 
sixty-six  per  cent,  illiterate.  The  period  given  by  treaty  for  the 
Spanish  residents  to  elect  Spanish  or  Cuban  citizenship  expired 
April  II,  1900,  and  provision  was  immediately  made  for  the  elec- 
tion of  municipal  officers  by  the  people  under  a  suffrage  restricted 
to  all  adult  male  citizens  who  could  read  and  write  or  possessed 
property  to  the  value  of  $250,  or  had  served  in  the  patriot  army. 
The  new  municipal  governments  were  peacefully  established  on  June 
16,  and  their  powers  were  soon  enlarged  by  military  order.  On 
July  25  a  call  was  issued  for  the  election  of  delegates  under  the 
same  election  law  to  frame  and  adopt  a  constitution  for  the  new 
republic,  "  and  as  a  part  thereof  to  provide  for  and  agree  with  the 
government  of  the  United  States  upon  the  relations  to  exist  be- 
tween that  government  and  the  government  of  Cuba."  Delegates 
were  chosen  September  15,  and  the  convention  met  in  Havana 
November  5.  On  February  21,  1901,  it  adopted  a  constitution 
embodying  a  bill  of  rights  and  providing  for  universal  suffrage ; 
a  president;  vice-president,  and  house  of  representatives  elected  for 
four  years;  a  senate,  one-half  of  whose  members  are  elected  every 
fourth  year  for  a  term  of  eight  years;  cabinet  ministers  appointed 
and  removed  by  the  president ;  provincial  governments  with  limited 
powers,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  central  executive ;  and  a  su- 
preme court  with  power  to  pass  upon  the  constitutionality  of  laws. 
The  so-called  "  Piatt  amendment "  was  passed  by  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States  as  a  proviso  annexed  to  the  army  appropriation 
act  approved  Alarch  2,  1901.  It  authorized  the  President  to  transfer 
the  government  to  the  new  rqjublic  when  the  constitution  thereof 
embodied  provisions  forbidding  Cuba  to  make  a  treaty  impairing 


U  N  I  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  P:  S  331 

1067   1910 

its  independence  or  authorizing  foreign  colonization  or  military 
lodgment  in  the  island,  or  to  contract  any  debt  beyond  the  amount 
which  the  ordinary  revenues  can  pay  interest  upon  and  provide  a 
sinking  fund  for;  authorizing  intervention  by  the  United  States 
to  preserve  Cuban  independence  and  maintain  a  stable  government ; 
validating  all  acts  of  the  military  government,  binding  the  new 
republic  to  carry  out  certain  sanitary  plans;  and  providing  for 
coaling  and  naval  stations  for  the  United  States.  The  Piatt  amend- 
ment was  made  a  part  of  the  constitution  by  an  ordinance  adopted 
by  the  convention  June  12.  On  December  31,  the  officers  of  the 
new  government  were  elected,  and  on  May  20,  1902,  at  noon,  the 
government  was  transferred  to  them  with  appropriate  ceremonies, 
and  the  military  forces  of  the  United  States  were  withdrawn  except 
detachments  of  artillery  remaining  as  garrisons  of  naval  stations. 
While  Cuba  was  given  its  independence,  the  United  States  has 
continued  to  maintain  a  paternal  oversight,  and  whenever  it 
deemed  it  necessary,  directed  affairs.  On  November  12,  1909,  it 
asked  Cuba  to  explain  its  new  trade  treaty  with  Spain. 

For  three-quarters  of  a  century  the  United  States  have 
shown  a  keen  interest  in  the  project  of  uniting_  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans  by  a  canal,  and  in  1846  a  treaty  with  Xew 
Grenada  (now  Colombia)  charged  the  United  States  with  the  duty 
of  preserving  free  and  open  transit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
and  guaranteed  to  New  Grenada  her  rights  of  sovereignty  and 
property  there.  In  performance  of  the  duty  of  keeping  transit 
open  the  United  States  had  frequent  occasion  to  land  troops  on  the 
isthmus  to  protect  the  railroad  from  obstruction  or  control  at  the 
hands  of  one  or  other  of  the  parties  to  the  many  revolutions  which 
have  succeeded  one  another  there.  Tlie  failure  of  the  French  canal 
company  establishetl  the  fact  that  private  enterprise  was  inadequate 
to  the  task  of  piercing  the  isthmus;  public  sentiment  in  the  United 
States  forbade  any  other  nation  to  undertake  it ;  the  events  of  the 
war  with  Spain  demonstrated  tlic  necessity  of  its  accomplishment; 
and  the  Ilay-Paunccfote  treaty  removed  the  last  obstacle  to  com- 
plete American  control  by  aljrogating  tlie  long-standing  Clayton- 
Buhver  treaty  and  the  Britisli  rights  secured  thereby.  Congress, 
by  an  act  passed  July  2S',  1902,  auth(M'izcd  the  President  to  acquire 
from  Colombia  a  stri[)  of  huul  f(jr  the  canal,  to  be  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  United  States  and  subject  to  their  jurisdiction  as  to 
police  and  sanitary  regulations,  and  further  authorizing  the  pay- 


332  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

1867   1910 

ment  of  $40,000,000  for  the  property  of  the  French'  company.  If 
within  reasonable  time  the  President  could  not  obtain  the  desired 
rights  at  Panama  he  was  to  negotiate  for  similar  rights  at 
Nicaragua.  In  accordance  with  this  act  the  Hay-Herran  treaty 
was  negotiated,  giving  to  the  United  States  such  control  and  juris- 
diction over  a  strip  ten  miles  wide,  including  the  cities  of  Colon  and 
Panama,  in  exchange  for  $10,000,000.  It  was  coldly  received 
by  the  Colombia  Congress,  and  its  rejection  became  more  probable 
as  the  session  drew  toward  its  end.  This  led  to  plots  of  revolution 
among  the  people  of  the  isthmus,  who  ardently  wished  for  the  canal. 
News  of  this  condition  of  affairs  reached  the  President  through 
the  newspapers  and  the  reports  of  American  officers  on  the  ground. 
The  Colombia  Congress  came  to  a  close,  October,  1903,  without 
ratifying  the  treaty.  On  November  3  a  bloodless  uprising  occurred 
in  Panama,  the  new  republic  was  proclaimed  and  the  persons  of 
the  chief  civil  and  military  officers  of  Colombia  secured.  A  naval 
force  was  therefore  ordered  to  the  isthmus  on  November  3  in- 
structed to  maintain  free  and  open  transit  and  prevent  the  landing 
of  any  force,  government  or  insurgent,  at  any  point  within  lifty 
miles  of  Panama.  There  remained  a  Colombian  force  of  about 
500  men  in  Colon  which  threatened  to  fire  on  the  town  and  kill 
all  American  citizens  therein  unless  their  officers  who  had  been 
seized  in  Panama  were  restored  to  them.  Thereupon  a  force  of 
forty-two  men  was  landed  from  the  U.  S.  S.  Naslivillc  to  protect 
American  li^'es  and  property,  to  keep  the  railroad  open,  and  pre- 
vent its  use  for  military  purposes.  On  November  5  the  Colombian 
troops  were  persuaded  b}-  the  revolutionists  to  embark,  and  the 
arrival  of  the  U.  S.  S.  Dixie  insured  the  presence  of  a  force  adequate 
to  protect  American  lives  and  property.  The  new  republic  was 
immediately  recognized  by  the  United  States,  which  applied  to  it 
as  against  Colombia  the  guaranty  of  the  rights  of  sovereignty  and 
property  promised  to  New  Grenada  by  the  treaty  of  1846.  This 
was  on  the  theory  that  the  guaranty  "  ran  with  the  land."  in  the 
words  of  Secretary  Hay,  and  inured  to  the  benefit  of  the  new 
republic  as  soon  as  it  became  unquestionably  established.  The 
territory  thus  neutralized  and  protected  by  the  United  States  in- 
cluded the  cities  of  Colon  and  Panama,  the  railroad,  and  all  of  the 
isthmus  that  was  of  any  value.  .Moreover,  it  could  be  approached 
only  by  sea,  and  the  prohibition  of  the  landing  of  any  attacking 
force  within  fifty  miles  was  a  complete  bar  to  effective  hostilities. 


U  N  I  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  E  S  333 

1867   1910 

The  republic  of  Panama  was  quickly  recognized  by  the  leading 
powers  of  Europe,  and  soon  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  United 
States,  giving  to  the  United  States  a  much  larger  and  more  com- 
plete control  than  that  rejected  by  Colombia,  The  new  treaty  was 
ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  February  23,  1904,  by  a  vote 
of  72  to  17.  An  act  was  passed  April  28,  authorizing  the  Presi- 
dent to  pay  to  Panama  the  stipulated  $10,000,000,  take  posses- 
sion of  the  canal  strip,  establish  such  government  there  as  might 
be  necessary,  and  clothe  the  Panama  Commission  with  powers  at 
his  discretion.  Seven  commissioners  were  appointed,  headed  by 
Rear  Admiral  John  G.  Walker,  and  on  A  lay  9  the  President 
issued  formal  instructions  to  govern  them  in  the  double  task  of  civil 
government  and  engineering  enterprise.  By  these  instructions  the 
commission,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  was 
empowered  to  legislate  for  the  canal  zone,  including  the  making 
of  sanitary  ordinances  for  the  cities  of  Colon  and  Panama,  to  raise 
and  appropriate  revenues,  and  to  establish  a  civil  service  for  the 
government  of  the  zone  and  tlie  construction  of  the  canal.  This 
legislative  power  is  granted  only  until  the  close  of  the  58th  Con- 
gress, and  must  be  consistent  with  the  laws  and  treaties  of  the 
United  wStales  so  far  as  they  are  locally  applicable.  Existing  laws 
are  continued  in  force  until  altered  by  the  commission,  and  existing 
civil  olTiccrs  are  to  retain  tlicir  i)laces.  The  creation  of  new  courts 
is  authorized,  ar.d  tlic  inhabitants  of  the  strip  are  granted  the 
privileges  of  tlie  13111  of  ]\ights  except  trial  by  jury  and  the  right  to 
bear  arms.  ^Major  General  George  W.  Davis  was  made  governor 
of  the  canal  zone.  On  ]\Iay  19  he  proclaimed  the  new  government 
at  Panama. 

The  French  goveriiniciit  registered  a  claim  against  the  New 
Panama  company  and  the  Slate  of  Coloml)ia  f^r  $2,800,000,  which 
was  compromised  un  January  21,  1908,  liy  the  payment  of  $i,rx30,- 
000,  of  which  $300,000  were  contributed  l)y  Coloni])ia.  On  March 
14,  1908,  the  American  lleet  arrived  at  Panama,  and  the  occasion 
was  made  one  of  great  reji)icing.  Realizing  the  importance  of 
the  influence  of  the  Unileil  Stales,  the  government  (^f  Panama  in- 
vited the  former  comilry  to  ai)point  a  commission  that  would  as- 
sure fair  elections  lor  pre-ident,  and  on  July  I2ih,  Senor  Jose  Domingo 
Obaldia  was  elected  to  that  viT\i:c. 

There  was  a  change  in  chief  engineers  on  February  26,  1908, 


333a  COLONIES     OF     THE    WORLD 

Mayor  Goethals  succeeding  Stevens.  Considerable  controversy 
was  aroused  over  the  subscription  to  the  canal  bonds,  which  were 
finally  awarded  December  7,  1908.  On  February  9,  1909,  the 
methods  of  administration  were  materially  changed,  and  on  Feb- 
ruary 17,  1909,  President-elect  Taft  made  a  trip  to  Panama  to 
restore  good  feeling,  and  succeeded  in  making  satisfactory  ar- 
rangements. The  Isthmus  was  visited  by  a  destructive  hurricane 
on  July  II,  1909,  which  caused  much  damage.  The  United  States 
House  of  Representatives  passed  a  bill  on  January  5,  1910,  which 
abolished  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  and  created  the  office 
of  Director-General  instead. 


THE  OUTLOOK  1910 


Chapter  XIX 

THE  OUTLOOK 

THE  main  deduction  to  be  drawn  from  the  events  which 
have  been  sketched  out  is  obvious.  For  the  European 
poHtician  the  preceding  history,  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  the 
subjection  of  the  new  European  nations  to  the  old,  is  the  history  of 
a  long-  and  unbroken  series  of  failures.  All  the  military  force  and 
statesmanship  of  the  Old  World  combined  have  failed  to  keep  up  its 
hold  on  the  New.  Feudal  grants,  military  garrisons,  church  estab- 
lishments, mercantile  companies,  acts  of  navigation  and  colonial 
codes — every  device  of  the  politician  in  every  age,  have  broken 
down  alike.  Colonial  history  is,  in  this  respect,  distinguished  in  a 
marked  manner  from  Indian  history.  Europeans  can  rule  the 
East,  whether  for  their  own  advantage,  as  the  Dutch  formerly  did, 
or  for  the  advantage  of  the  Eastern  people,  as  the  English  do ; 
and  can  maintain  political  dominion  over  the  backward  races  the 
world  over ;  they  cannot  rule  their  own  descendants,  save  by  grant- 
ing them  self-government.  In  the  attempt  to  keep  up  a  real  sub- 
ordination of  the  new  to  the  old  Europe,  the  subtlest  intellects  have 
been  baffled;  and  the  attempt  has  been  finally  abandoned.  To  the 
European  historian  the  preceding  history  is  more  satisfactory.  It 
is  no  history  of  failures ;  it  is  a  history  of  grand  and  extraordinary 
successes.  The  field  of  events  which  are  interesting  to  him  has 
been  suddenly  enlarged;  he  escapes  from  a  confined  space  to  one 
which  seems  to  have  no  limit ;  instead  of  the  narrow  Asiatic  penin- 
sula, he  finds  himself  dealing  with  an  European  world  which 
encircles  the  globe.  He  sees  that  western  Europe  has  laid  a  firm 
grasp  on  the  East,  and  has  in  the  West  spread  the  most  perfect 
social  developments  in  the  world  more  or  less  over  a  space  whicli 
may  be  called  twenty  or  thirty  times  as  great  as  itself.  In  both 
of  these  vast  fields  two  national  types,  traceable  in  a  clear  course 
til  rough  ages  of  stagnation  and  confinement,  suddenly  found  them- 
selves contending  for  the  first  place  in  the  race,  and  ultimately 
for  mastery.     The  victory  of  tlie  Teutonic  type,  in  the  nationalities 

334 


THEOUTLOOK  335 

of  England  and  Holland,  was  soon  apparent.  The  real  Indies,  the 
great  prize  which  Columbus  and  Gama  toiled  to  secure,  fell  ulti- 
mately, in  unequal  proportions,  into  the  hands  of  the  English  and 
Dutch,  and  in  their  hands  it  still  remains.  Like  the  real  Indies, 
the  New  World  which  has  been  formed  by  settlements  and  conquests 
fell  at  first  mainly  into  the  hands  of  the  Latin  races.  The  Teutonic 
races  wrested  it  i)iecemeal  from  them.  The  English  made  the 
beginning  on  the  American  shore  of  new  political  communities  as 
free  as  their  own;  and  the  banner  of  liberty,  once  raised,  drew  all 
other  nations  unto  it  in  the  course  of  time.  This  wresting 
of  America  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Latin  governments,  com- 
menced by  actual  seizure  and  occupation,  was  completed  by  the 
effect  of  example.  By  a  series  of  changes,  sometimes  coming 
slowly,  but  more  often  in  swift  succession,  colonies  have  disap- 
peared, and  a  vast  family  of  new  nations  has  been  formed  and  or- 
ganized. Tlie  history  of  these  nations,  early  as  is  the  stage  in 
which  it  even  now  stands,  exhibits  a  great  variety.  Sometimes 
it  has  been  a  history  of  great  and  deep  internal  conflicts,  sometimes 
of  vague  and  shifting  external  combinations :  sometimes  it  has  been 
affected  by  great  moral  principles,  long  disregarded,  and  at  length 
established  after  bloodshed  and  anarchy;  it  has  reflected  the  w'orst 
social  evils  of  the  old  Europe,  yet  we  find  it  on  the  whole  yielding 
new  growths  from  the  old  germs,  which  prove  themselves  to  have 
been  fed  from  a  soil  of  virgin  strength,  and  from  an  air  purged, 
or  purging  itself,  of  the  old  moral  malaria.  The  historical  student 
will  find  here  in  abundance  the  authentic  traits  of  types  which  he 
has  been  accustomed  to  realize  only  in  imagination.  He  can  study 
the  patriot  hero,  and  see  how  he  develops  into  the  military  tyrant ; 
watch  the  painful  growth  of  infant  communities;  see  how  the  satis- 
faction of  one  social  want  generates  another;  how  climate  acts 
upon  the  human  type,  and  what  arc  the  limits  of  its  action;  how 
sometimes  a  people  slowly  disabuse  themselves  of  a  false  idea,  and 
how  at  other  times  they  start  up  and  cast  it  suddenly  from  them; 
how  times  wait  ft^r  men,  and  men  for  times;  how  the  heart  of  man, 
and  the  greater  heart  of  bodies  of  men,  is  the  same  in  all  ages, 
bold,  subtle,  varialilc,  and  inscrutable  to  the  wisest.  The  history  of 
new  Europe,  moreover,  stands  alone  in  being  a  history  which  in- 
vites the  incjuircr  with  a  complete  array  of  materials.  Here  is  little 
or  no  place  for  conjecture:  all  that  is  wanted  may  be  found,  for 
new  Europe  has  grown  u[)  since  the  invention  of  the  printing-  press. 


336  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

In  the  eyes  of  the  political  philosopher  this  history  is  reducible 
to  the  successive  attempted  solutions  of  two  remarkable  problems. 
The  old  Europe  interrogated  the  new,  with  the  view  of  solving 
the  problem  How  to  organize  the  colony;  the  new  Europe  has  re- 
plied to  the  old  Europe  by  organizing  the  republic,  and  by  show- 
ing the  old  Europe  how  to  do  it  also.  In  the  organization  of  the 
colony,  that  is,  the  formation  of  a  new  European  community  essen- 
tially contributory  and  subordinate  to  the  mother  country,  the  Old 
World  failed  suddenly  and  completely.  In  the  organization  of  the 
Republic,  for  various  reasons,  the  Old  World  had  not  been  hitherto 
very  successful,  and  its  successes  had  only  been  achieved  upon  a 
small  scale;  the  New  World  has  shown  how  the  organization  of 
the  republic  may  be  secured  by  a  people  spreading  over  a  million 
of  square  miles.  This  has  been  done  by  means  of  the  federation. 
The  federation,  like  the  colony,  is  an  idea  derived  from  the  Old 
World.  The  Old  World  knew  the  federation  and  the  colony  on  a 
small  scale ;  the  New  W^orld  has  taught  us  to  know  them  both  on  a 
great  scale.  The  New  World  will  perhaps  go  far  beyond  this,  and 
teach  the  Old  World  not  only  how  to  organize  the  colony,  but  how 
to  apply  the  federation  to  old  states.  The  nations  of  the  Old  World 
are  being  forced  more  and  more  together,  sometimes  by  necessities 
from  within,  sometimes  by  pressure  from  without.  The  unions  in 
Germany  and  Italy  achieved  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury may  be  looked  upon  as  proceeding  from  the  spirit  of  federa- 
tion in  a  modified  form,  and  we  may  expect  yet  more  exemplifica- 
tions of  the  same  principle  on  the  soil  of  the  old  Europe.  Some 
have  even  predicted  that  a  federation  of  nations  of  western  Eu- 
rope, in  spite  of  all  differences  of  language  and  manners,  will  be 
forced  on  by  the  increased  aggressiveness  of  eastern  Europe ;  a 
federation  of  peoples  inspired  by  the  modern  spirit  of  commerce 
and  industry  against  those  which  are  yet  filled  with  the  mediaeval 
lust  of  conquest.  Without  trespassing  on  the  uncertain,  we  may 
safely  say  that  the  New  World  has  greatly  contributed  to  the 
spread  of  that  principle  of  nationality  on  which  the  unions  of  Italy 
and  Germany  have  been  founded.  Tlie  new  Europe  has  also  con- 
tributed much  to  the  advancement  of  the  science  of  political  econ- 
omy, to  wliicli  tlie  attention  of  thinking  people  in  the  Old  World 
began  to  be  drawn  just  wlien  the  New  World  was  rising  in  im- 
portance. People  saw  clearly  going  on  before  their  very  eyes  such 
processes  as  the  growth  of  population  and  wealth,  the  exchange 


THEOUTLOOK  337 

of  colonial  and  European  products,  the  export  of  capital  and  of 
labor;  and  the  observation  of  these  things  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  the  opinions  which  were  put  forth  by  Adam  Smith  and  Jean 
Baptiste  Say,  the  founders  of  the  science  of  political  economy. 

To  the  observer  the  new  Europe  appears  like  a  land  of  promise, 
but  its  promise  is  not  of  hope  unmixed.  Alost  of  the  retard- 
ing and  pernicious  principles  which  hamper  the  Old  World 
have  been  transplanted  to  the  New,  and  they  have  there  coalesced 
with  ill  principles  of  native  growth.  In  Latin  America  the 
great  masses  of  Indian,  negro,  and  mixed  races  adapt  themselves 
only  veiy  slowly  to  European  notions  of  industry,  organiza- 
tion, and  the  proper  direction  of  public  spirit.  The  New  World 
must  therefore  look  for  its  mainstay  to  the  European  races.  But 
here,  again,  the  contributions  which  the  old  Europe  has  long  been 
making,  out  of  its  own  numbers,  to  the  peopling  of  the  new  have 
been  mostly  from  the  elements  which  were  least  worth  keeping; 
and  the  statesmen  of  the  New  World  have  enough  to  do  in  pre- 
venting the  population  which  is  ever  streaming  to  their  shores 
from  lowering  their  civilization.  The  real  strength  of  the  new 
Europe  is  not  in  immigration  from  the  old,  but  in  the  multiplica- 
tion of  its  own  sons.  In  only  one  or  two  of  the  nations  of  new  Eu- 
rope, in  the  older  portions  of  the  United  States  and  in  Chile,  has 
it  experienced  the  tension  and  force  which  are  gained  by  the  recoil 
of  an  expanding  population.  Elsewhere,  the  popuhition  born  in  the 
New  World  is  still  spreading  on  its  native  soil  by  an  important 
process,  which  may  be  called  internal  colonization.  It  is  mainly 
to  this  process,  not  to  immigration,  that  the  great  growth  of  the 
United  States  is  due;  and  this  process  is  equally  the  mainspring 
of  extension  in  Canada,  the  Australias,  and  South  Africa.  The 
United  States  show  us  clearly  tlie  model  on  which  the  development 
of  the  three  lesser  groups  of  British  Colonies  is  almost  certain  to 
proceed.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America  are  striving  for  the 
same  ideal  with  a  success  that  varies  according  to  circumstances. 
]\rany  observers  have  noticed  what  tlicy  think  to  be  signs  of  failure 
in  the  struggle.  They  tliink  that  the  Latin  colonies  are  fast  relaps- 
ing into  weakness  and  decay,  and  will  at  length  be  practically  aban- 
doned to  the  native  races,  or  at  least  to  a  mixture  in  which  the 
native  races  greatly  predominate.  But  when  we  consider  how  slow 
all  progress  has  been  in  the  Latin  colonies,  we  shall  hardly  think  it 
wise  to  come  to  any  conclusion  of  this  kind.     Colonial  history  is 


338  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

full  of  surprises,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  whole  of 
Latin  America  may  not  one  day  attain  the  degree  of  progress  which 
is  so  remarkable  in  the  republics  of  Chile  and  Mexico. 

Small  as  is  the  portion  of  the  history  of  new  Europe  which  has 
as  yet  been  unrolled  to  our  view,  it  enables  us  to  correct  a  great 
error  which  prevailed  at  the  time  when  historians,  following 
the  notions  of  those  who  had  supposed  that  the  English  would 
conquer  all  the  Spanish  colonies,  augured  a  vast  antagonism  be- 
tween the  English  civilization  of  North  America  and  the  Latin 
civilization  of  South  America ;  an  antagonism  of  Protestanism  and 
tolerance  on  the  one  hand  with  Catholicism  and  intolerance  on  the 
other;  of  a  republican  nation  with  one  inveterately  monarchical; 
of  stability  with  anarchy.  South  America  was  to  engage  in  a 
grand  struggle  with  the  North;  the  North  was  to  conquer  it,  and 
then  to  fall  to  pieces  by  its  own  weight.  Such  was  the  belief  of 
men  as  acute  as  Hegel  and  Humboldt.  These  auguries  have  been 
proved  erroneous.  North  America  has  conquered  South  America, 
but  not  by  arms.  The  leaven  of  North  America  has  thoroughly 
entered  into  the  best  and  greatest  part  of  South  America ;  and  it 
will  in  time  certainly  leaven  the  whole  lump.  Year  by  year  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  nations  in  the  south  are  getting  accustomed 
to  consider  themselves  "  Americans."  The  belief  gains  strength 
among  them  continually  that  they  ought  to  be  as  far  ahead  of  Eu- 
rope as  Europe  is  ahead  of  Asia.  America  has  thus  become  a  great 
social  idea,  if  not  a  political  one,  implying  a  imity.  a  physical 
grandeur,  and  a  progress  which  is  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the 
western  continent.  Australia  and  South  Africa,  especially  the 
former,  have  shown  traces  of  a  similar  feeling  on  a  different  scale ; 
and  we  may  say  of  the  whole  of  new  Europe  that  it  is  becoming  a 
great  social  and  political  unity,  reflecting  with  increased  splendor 
all  that  is  really  bright  and  good  in  the  old.  This  has  been  done  l)y 
means  of  English  colonial  ideas.  Of  the  many  types  of  colonial 
life  the  English  seems  to  have  been  for  some  time  extinguishing 
all  the  others  on  the  physiological  principle  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest ;  and  this  extends  even  to  the  English  language.  Through- 
out South  America,  the  chief  part  of  the  new  Europe  where  Eng- 
lisli  is  not  the  native  tongue  of  the  colonist,  English  is  becoming 
sp()l-:en  m(;rc  and  more:  and  we  may  safely  measure  the  ])rogress 
i)i  a  "  Latin  ""  ccjionial  community,  as  we  may  that  of  an  Asiatic 
community,  by  the  extent  to  which  the  English  language  is  used. 


T  n  E     O  U  T  L  O  O  K  339 

By  means  of  the  Eiii^lish  colonies  English  has  superseded  French 
as  the  lingua  franca  or  common  tongue  of  the  world. 

New  Europe  has  left  Asia  much  further  behind  it  than  old 
Europe  has  done.  The  old  Europe  clings  with  great  tenacity  to 
some  Asiatic  ideas.  In  politics,  it  clings  to  the  kingdom  and  the 
empire ;  but  in  new  Europe  those  old  things  have  passed  or  are  fast 
passing  away.  Here  we  find  for  the  first  time  in  history  the  organ- 
ization of  commonwealths  on  a  scale  commensurate  to  first-rate 
national  existence.  In  society,  the  old  Europe  clings  to  caste.  This 
feeling  grows  weaker  as  we  travel  westward  in  old  Europe  itself, 
and  is  being  destro}-cd  in  new  Europe  by  the  contact  of  races.  In 
the  New  World  the  bonds  of  race  are  suddenly  dissolved,  and  man 
becomes  a  social  unity,  capable  of  combinations  of  a  new'  kind  and 
on  a  new  scale.  The  religious  ideas  of  the  new  and  the  old  Europe 
present  an  equally  marked  diversity.  The  Old  World  was  intol- 
erant, the  New  World  is  tolerant.  New^  Europe,  following  Hol- 
land and  England,  has  happily  mingled  the  spirit  of  liberty  with 
that  of  religion.  The  law  of  the  Neu^  World  is  simpler  and  more 
liberal ;  and  in  this  matter  the  old  Europe  has  been  forced  for  very 
shame  to  imitate  it.  Even  in  ]'2ngland  most  of  the  legal  and  politi- 
cal reforms  which  have  been  adopted  have  been  first  tried  in  the 
new  Europe.  America  is  the  only  part  of  the  world  where  Moham- 
medanism has  not  penetrated.  Yet  the  New  World  has  suffered 
from  the  taint  of  both  slavery  and  polygamy,  the  two  great 
Asiatic  social  evils  which  the  ^Mohammedan  law  fosters  and  pro- 
tects. But  slavery  is  everywhere  being  rooted  out,  and  the  polyg- 
amy of  the  Mormon  community  in  the  United  States  bids  fair  to 
be  a  transitory  phenomenon. 

We  have  just  said  that  the  best  nations  of  the  New  A\'orld 
tend  to  become  an  abstraction  of  the  soundest  elements  in  the  old. 
As  years  go  on.  the  old  Tuu'ope  cannot  but  confcn-m  itself  more  and 
more  to  the  model  of  this  abstraction  of  its  own  best  elements  real- 
ized nn  a  large  scale;  and  the  eld  Europe  tluis  may  be  said  morally 
to  become  tlie  satellite  of  the  new.  The  history  oi  the  political  and 
S()cial  changes  of  tlie  \yd>t  century  in  the  new  and  the  old  Europe 
alike  is  almost  like  the  dream  of  the  King  of  Babylon,  in  whicli 
the  great  image  was  sniiitc-n  by  a  >tone  cut  out  without  hands, 
and  its  iri^n  and  cla_\'.  and  ^iUcr  aii'.l  gold,  were  broken  to  pieces 
togetlier.  and  ni;ulc  like  the  chaff  of  the  >u:ii!iicr  ilireshing-tlooi-. 
while  the  stone  that  t«mote  the  image  became  a  great  mountain,  and 


340  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

filled  the  whole  earth.  Those  great  monarchies  of  western  Eu- 
rope, out  of  which  the  new  Europe  sprang,  have  been  completely 
metamorphosed.  It  is  true  that  this  is  not  entirely  attributable  to 
the  new  Europe;  but  the  new  Europe  unquestionably  had  a  great 
share  in  the  work.  France  is  a  republic,  Spain  has  been  a  republic, 
and  will  be  so  again ;  England  and  Portugal  are  notoriously 
republics  in  a  monarchical  guise.  Oddly  enough,  the  Dutch 
Republic,  to  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  reorganization  of  the  old 
Europe  may  be  traced,  has  outwardly  become  a  monarchy,  but  it 
is  really  a  republic  with  an  hereditary  president.  In  deciding  one 
of  the  most  important  issues  in  the  history  of  our  time,  the  fate 
of  southeastern  Europe  and  w-estern  Asia,  the  reaction  of  the  New 
World  will  probably  be  very  apparent.  These  parts  must  be 
practically  colonized  over  again ;  and  this  can  only  be  done  under 
free  political  systems.  Liberty  and  colonization  have  in  fact 
already  begun  to  do  this  great  work  in  Servia,  Rumania,  Bulgaria, 
and  Greece;  and  the  next  steps  will  perhaps  be  taken  in  Crete  and 
Asia  Minor.  We  have  in  one  place  of  this  volume  briefly  traced 
the  connection  of  the  growth  of  the  colonies  with  the  growth  of 
the  mechanical  arts  in  Europe.  The  vastness  and  variety  of  nature 
in  the  New^  World  has  given  an  extraordinary  stimulus  to  physical 
science.  ]\Ien  of  science  have  interrogated  nature  in  a  more  patient 
spirit;  they  have  unlearned  the  narrow  dogmas  of  a  half-Asiatic 
philosophy.  In  the  New  World,  where  the  imagination  enjoys  an 
ampler  air  than  in  the  Old,  there  have  been  formed  many  strange 
and  wide  aspirations.  Few^  of  them,  perhaps,  have  been  realized ; 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  here  the  great  Christian  dogma  of  the 
practical  fraternity  of  mankind  has  taken  for  the  first  time  its 
true  meaning.  In  the  New  World  all  men  are  equal,  and  have 
equal  rights;  and  as  the  New  World  is  conterminous  with  the 
spread  of  Christianity,  leaving  iMaliommedanism,  Hinduism,  and 
Buddliism  to  Asia  and  Africa,  so  it  is  conterminous  with  the  spread 
of  political  and  social  liberty,  leaving  to  Asia  the  system  of  castes 
and  dynasties.  Turning  to  a  more  homely  aspect  of  history,  we 
shall  still  find  the  new  and  the  old  Europe  on  the  same  basis  of 
progress.  We  have  seen  that  this  history  is  concerned  not  only 
with  a  larger  area,  but  with  a  wider  series  of  facts,  than  most 
Instorics.  The  growth  of  tlie  colonial  nations  is  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  growtli  of  wealth,  enterprise,  science,  pubHc  spirit, 
and  general  enlightenment  in  the  mother  countries.     This  is  why 


THEOUTLOOK  841 

England  and  Holland  have  beaten  the  Latin  nations  in  the  colonial 
race,  and  colonial  growth  has  reacted  powerfully  in  all  these 
respects  upon  the  old  Europe.  The  growth  of  inventions  in 
machinery,  one  of  the  great  distinguishing  features  of  the  last  hun- 
dred years,  has  had  much  to  do  both  with  colonial  progress  and 
with  the  progress  in  the  old  Europe  produced  by  the  reaction  of 
colonial  progress.  Without  the  steamboat  and  the  railway,  the 
new  Europe  would  never  have  become  what  it  has  become;  and 
it  is  the  power-loom,  the  cotton-gin,  the  wool-combing  machine, 
and  such  like  inventions,  which  have  given  to  the  most  flourishing 
colonial  trades  their  present  magnitude  and  importance.  The  New 
World  has  had  a  most  important  effect  on  the  well-being  of  the 
poorer  people  in  the  old  Europe.  It  has  produced  materials  for 
their  work;  it  has  afforded  them  an  opportunity  of  escaping  from  a 
narrow  field  into  a  land  where  labor  has  every  advantage  on  its 
side,  and  it  has  also  made  food  of  all  kinds  much  cheaper.  The 
New  World  has  more  food  than  it  wants ;  from  its  abundance  of 
productive  land,  it  overflows  everywhere  with  the  necessaries  of 
life,  and  the  Old  World  of  course  feels  the  benefit.  Not  only  coffee 
and  sugar,  but  even  bread  and  butter,  flour,  cheese,  lard,  salted  meat 
of  all  kinds,  and  even  fresh,  meat  and  fruits,  are  brought  to  the 
old  Europe  from  the  New  World.  This  illustrates  perhaps  better 
than  anything  else  how  close  and  real  the  ties  between  the  Old  and 
the  New  World  are  becoming. 

With  regard  to  the  great  mass  of  the  new  European  nations, 
that  is,  to  those  of  the  American  continent  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  Patagonia,  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the  nations  of  old 
Europe  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  existing  in  the  nations  of  the 
old  continent.  They  are  independent,  and  connected  by  no  neces- 
sary ties  whatever.  Tlie  New  World  has  thus  increased  the  abso- 
lute number  of  the  great  luirnpean  family  of  nations.  Most  of 
the  new  mem])crs  of  that  family  may  nt)t  be  at  ])rescnt  worthy 
of  comparison  in  point  of  strength  or  wisdom  with  the  old,  but, 
as  we  have  seen,  tliey  lia\e  been  both  strong  enough  and  wise 
enough  to  esl;il)Iish  their  in(lci)en(lencc,  and  to  organize  themselves 
on  a  uniform  l);i'<is.  si'lting  tlieir  faces  steadfastly  toward  prog- 
ress; their  capacity  for  dc\ cli 'pmcnt  is  unlimited,  and  succeed- 
ing generations  will  see  the  resuh.  Asia  and  Africi  themselves 
will  perhajjs  be  graduall}'  luiropcanized  through  the  prepomlerance 
given  to   Eurii[)can   idea-  by  the  independent   forces  of  the  New 


343  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

World.  The  new  Europe  increases  in  population  in  a  greater  ratio 
than  has  ever  been  known,  and  it  is  impossible  to  guess  what  may 
be  the  exact  effect  of  this  upon  the  balance  of  national  power  on 
the  globe.  The  new  Europe  embraces  about  twenty  sovereign 
states,  and  may  possibly  break  up  further,  so  as  to  yield  a  greater 
number  of  political  units  standing  toward  each  other  in  indepen- 
dent relations.  These  independent  relations  at  present  only  exist  in 
their  perfect  form  in  Europe  itself,  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  America.^  The  three  great  groups  of 
English  colonies  were  for  a  time  in  a  state  of  semi-independence, 
which  could  not  fail  to  hamper  their  progress  without  conferring 
either  on  themselves  or  on  the  mother-country  any  benefit  in 
exchange.  To-day  the  independence  of  Canada  and  Australia  is 
practically  complete  and  it  is  hard  to  see  how  their  connection  with 
the  mother-country  can  hamper  their  progress,  save  by  exposing 
them  to  the  chances  of  a  war  undertaken  by  Great  Britain  against 
a  great  power.  The  risk  of  attack  by  any  but  a  great  naval  power 
would  be  small  for  Australia  and  South  Africa;  and  for  Canada 
likewise,  unless  the  war  were  with  the  United  States. 

These  three  groups  of  colonies  bring  us  back  to  a  difficulty 
which  was  familiar  to  English  statesmen  more  than  a  century  ago. 
The  Canadian  and  Australian  Parliaments  make  their  own  laws, 
and  raise  their  own  taxes,  just  as  the  Parliament  of  the  United  King- 
dom does  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Their  sole  connection 
with  the  mother-country  is  through  the  Crown ;  and  though  they 
have  been  mainly  peopled  from  the  United  Kingdom,  in  no  sense 
can  they  be  considered  as  sharing  in  its  nationality.  They  do  not 
wish  to  stand  alone  in  the  world,  and  they  feel  that  they  are  not 
strong  enough  to  do  so ;  besides  this,  there  is  a  natural  and  ir- 
resistible desire  for  peoples  speaking  the  same  tongue  to  unite  in 
forming  large  and  powerful  combinations.  Year  by  year  the  world 
is  learning  to  unite  its  forces  more  and  more  closely.  Every  citizen 
of  a  great  nation  bears  reflected  upon  himself  some  part  of  the 
reputation  of  tliat  nation.  The  Englishman  and  the  Frenchman, 
the  citizen  of  tlie  United  States  and  of  united  Germany,  are  pnjud 
of  their  title;  but  no  one  at  present  could  be  very  proud  of  being 
an  Australian  or  a  South  African,  because  these  countries  have  not 
as  yet  ])r(j(hice(l  great  men  or  done  great  deeds.     The  people  of 

^  Japan  has  been  recently  aiiinitted  to  a  standing  of  full  diplomatic  equality 
wilh  other  civilized   powers. 


THE     OUTLOOK  343 

these  lands  will  sooner  or  later  desire  to  attach  themselves  to  some 
great  nationality.  Now  the  English-speaking  world  is  divided  into 
two  rival  nationalities,  those  of  the  old  country  and  the  new  coun- 
try; of  Britain  and  the  United  States.  At  present,  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, and  South  Africa  belong  to  neither.  The  first  and  second 
have  been  endowed  w'ith  local  organizations  of  their  own,  and  we 
may  expect  to  hear  that  the  voice  of  these  great  groups  of  colonies 
will  be  raised  for  a  substantial  federative  union  with  one  or  other 
of  the  great  powers  which  divide  the  English-speaking  world. 
Unless  these  loose  groups  are  attached  by  some  such  firm  tie  to 
England,  one  of  them  is  quite  certain,  and  even  the  others  are  very 
likely,  to  attach  themselves  to  the  United  States.  In  the  political 
as  well  as  the  physical  world,  attraction  is  a  mighty  law.  The 
statesmen  of  the  latter  nation  have  from  the  beginning  regarded 
as  a  certainty  the  accession  of  Canada  to  the  Union.  The  United 
States  do  not  desire  to  conquer  Canada  by  force,  but  no  one  can 
foresee  the  effects  of  a  political  rupture  with  England,  and  the  same 
relation  extends  to  other  British  colonies.  Canada  and  Australia 
both  belong  to  the  great  world  of  the  Pacific  on  either  shore  of 
which  America  and  Russia  are  rapidly  extending  their  naval  sta- 
tions. The  United  States  already  has  possession  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  which  are  nearly  half  way  to  the  Eiji  group,  and  of 
the  Philippines.  On  the  other  hand,  many  al)le  politicians  have 
thought  the  empire  a  mere  figment,  and,  it  it  possessed  reality,  not 
worth  maintaining,  l^his,  however,  is  not  so  clear.  England  is 
the  only  colonial  nation  whicli  has  a  population  which  is  ever  ex- 
ceeding its  narrow  geographical  limits  and  at  tlie  same  time  pos- 
sesses colonies  oversea  which  lie  open  to  F.uropean  immigration 
on  a  large  scale.  Tlie  overflow  of  England  now  peoples  states 
which,  though  Englisli-s])eaking,  are  not  part  of  Engknul.  Most 
of  it  peoples  the  United  States;  and  it  will  continue  to  do  so  as  long 
as  the  ])rcscnt  anomalous  contlition  of  things  continnes.  If  an 
actual  union  with  the  colonies  were  accomplished,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  they  would  grow  much  faster.  The  overllow  of  her  popu- 
lation would  tlicn  cnricli  Iier  (uvn  soil.  .V  clnser  union  with  her 
colonies  would  certainly  tend  to  secure  for  h'ngland  that  weight 
in  the  world  which  is  imperiled  by  the  scantiness  of  her  geogra])h- 
ical  limits,  ever  diminishing  in  comparati\-e  size  and  imp(M-tance 
with  the  increase  in  si/c  aiitl  importance  of  tlie  nati(,'ns  oi  the  Xew 
World.     Without  her  great   Indian  Empire,  England  would  have 


344.  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

far  less  weight  in  the  world's  balance  of  power.  The  weight  which 
her  colonies  are  capable  of  adding  to  her  substantial  power  is  of  a 
different  kind,  and  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  it  is  impossible  for  Eng- 
lish statesmen  to  wield  the  political  force  of  her  colonies  as  they 
wield  that  of  India.  But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  some  real 
tie  of  union  might  not  be  adopted  which,  without  increasing  the 
complexity  of  the  imperial  government  of  England,  might  add  to 
its  forces  the  fast-growing  forces  of  the  great  groups  of  English 
independent  colonies,  or  at  any  rate  to  prevent  them  from  drifting 
away  and  becoming  rivals,  if  not  enemies,  as  the  United  States 
of  America  have  done.  Such  a  united  empire  of  Great  Britain 
and  her  colonies  would  not  be  a  colonial  empire  in  the  true  sense 
at  all.  It  would  be  a  federation  of  independent  states.  Public 
opinion  in  favor  of  it  in  the  colonies  and  in  England  steadily 
grows,  and  some  attempt  at  its  realization  will  in  all  likelihood  be 
made.  The  current  revival  of  protectionist  doctrines  in  England 
draws  much  of  its  strength  from  this  drift  of  public  opinion. 

This  history  has  been  to  a  great  extent  a  history  of  the  decline 
and  fall  of  colonial  empires.  We  have  seen  the  outlines  of  a  great 
French  empire  in  North  America,  of  which  the  Canadian  Domin- 
ion claims  to  be  the  natural  representative,  fade  away  almost  before 
they  were  recognized  by  the  world.  We  have  seen  the  fall  of  the 
British  empire  in  North  America,  and  the  break-up  of  the  great 
Spanish  empire  in  South  America.  In  the  course  of  the  wars  of 
the  half-century  of  transition,  we  have  seen  the  colonial  empires 
of  France  and  Holland  utterly  destroyed  by  the  British  arms.  We 
have  seen  the  South  American  Portuguese  colony,  through  a 
singular  combination  of  circumstances,  reverse  its  natural  relation 
to  the  mother- country,  and  finally  cut  itself  adrift.  We  have  seen 
the  settlements  of  all  Europe  on  the  coasts  of  India  overshadowed 
by  the  growth  of  the  great  Indian  military  empire  of  England. 
We  have  seen  within  our  own  time  the  new  French  colonial  empire 
grow  to  vast  size,  and  new  nations,  especially  Germany  and  the 
United  States,  entering  the  colonial  field.  These  colonics  are  of 
a  new  type,  offering  no  field  for  the  growth  of  new  states  of 
lun-o])ean  race,  but  occupied  by  peoples  of  inferior  civilization  under 
the  political  control  of  the  white  race.  The  new  colonialism  means 
the  parceling  out  of  the  whole  world  among  the  more  advanced 
nations  and  the  subjection  of  the  less  advanced  to  their  control  and 
leadership.     luu-opean    influence    thus    becomes    world-wide,    for 


THE     OUTLOOK  34.5 

though  one  Asiatic  nation  has  recently  become  a  great  power,  it 
has  done  so  by  the  adoption  of  European  ideas  and  methods.  To 
what  extent  a  similar  transformation  may  be  wrought  in  other 
Asiatic  peo[)lcs  no  man  can  foretell. 

The  growth  of  the  new  Europe,  as  we  have  seen,  has  greatly, 
though  by  no  means  entirely,  depended  on  the  outflow  of  the  super- 
fluous population  of  the  old.  Before  the  epoch  of  independence 
this  outflow  was  considerable;  but  it  took  an  entirely  new  start 
after  the  peace  of  1815,  and  the  nineteenth  century  was  a  great  era 
of  movement  for  European  peoples.  Many  things  have  concurred 
to  promote  it.  Steam  navigation,  the  invention  of  machinery 
employing  fewer  hands,  a  reformed  policy  on  the  part  of  govern- 
ment in  dealing  with  the  poor,  the  diffusion  of  increased  knowledge 
of  the  New  World,  have  all  tended  in  this  direction.  The  main 
sources  of  this  outflow  of  population  from  old  Europe  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  the  United  Kingdom 
and  Germany;  and  the  former  took  the  lead.^  Religious  persecu- 
tion at  home  and  toleration  in  America  greatly  promoted  English 
emigration  in  the  seventeenth  century:  and  as  early  as  17 10 
emigration  became  a  direct  policy.  Tn  that  year  Queen  Anne's 
government  ofl^crcd  a  free  passage  to  America  for  distressed 
laborers  and  their  families;  and  the  supcrflutnis  agricullur;'.!  jiojni- 
lation  of  JCngland  has  e\-er  since  poured  into  America  in  a  steady 
stream.  S[)ecial  causes  for  a  time  made  Ireland  its  chief  source.-' 
The  destruction  of  the  small  holdings  and  villages  of  Ireland  for 
the  benefit  of  the  landlords  and  large  farmers,  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  one;  the  unjust  penal  laws  were  an- 
other. These  laws  drove  the  Irish  Catholics  tcj  the  New  World  in 
a  larger  proportion  than  the  Pn^testants,  and  when  this  cause 
ceased  to  operate,  it  was  succeeded  by  one  even  lunre  effectual. 
The  introduction  of  ])otato  culture  caused  a  great  subdi\-ision  of 
the  land,  and  doul)le(l  the  density  of  tlie  poor  country  ])opulation; 
the  failure  of  the  potato  cmp  in  1846  and  1847  -"Suddenly  drtn'c 
between  one  and  two  millions  of  Irish  to  seek  their  subsistence  iti 

-  Of    i7.,l?,i.noo   emigrants    from    Tuirnpc    in    the   period    1820-1882.   8,570,000 
were  l_>ritisli  snhject-.  and  4.M4.000  Germans. — MnlluaH's  "Dictionary  Statistics." 

"  Immiijration  into  t!u-  I'nited  Slates  from  ("ire.it  Britain,  exelv.dinc:  Ireland 
was  noticeaMy  le--  t!ian  tliat  frmn  Cierni.aiiy  tlirini^liont  tlie  period  1821-1000 
(^f  all  iminiqr.-mts  intd  the  Ihnted  St.ates  lr(dand  fnrni-^hed  42  per  cent,  in 
the  period  iS_m-iS50,  a  [)riiportion  steadily  rc(hief<l  initil  it  fell  to  less  than  11 
per  cent,  in  the  decade  ending  lyoo. — '"  Twelfth  Census  of  U.  S.,"'  Vol.  I.,  p.  103. 


346  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

the  New  World.  A  spirit  of  adventure,  rather  than  actual  in- 
justice or  necessity,  has  always  promoted  emigration  from  the 
island  of  Great  Britain,  especially  from  its  northern  portion. 
Wherever  we  go,  whether  in  the  New  World  or  in  the  trading 
settlements  of  the  East,  we  find  the  Scotch  to  be  a  leading  people 
among  emigrant  Europeans.  Notwithstanding  that  depopulation 
of  the  Highlands  which  was  once  mercilessly  pursued  by  the  land- 
owners, Scotland  has  never  equaled  England,  with  its  large  teem- 
ing cities,  as  a  source  of  population  for  the  New  World.  England 
is  the  center  of  news  for  the  whole  globe;  and  as  soon  as  new 
chances  offer  in  any  part  of  it,  a  spontaneous  emigration,  not 
altogether  of  poor  people,  but  of  the  large  class  of  people  of  trad- 
ing and  industrial  pursuits  who  have  saved  a  small  capital,  and  of 
enterprising  young  men  from  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  at  once 
begins.  Wherever  these  people  go,  the  poorer  emigrants,  who 
have  nothing  to  depend  on  but  their  labor,  find  the  way  made  plain 
for  them,  and  it  is  their  pioneering  that  puts  British  emigration 
in  a  rank  above  that  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  Germany  comes  next 
to  the  British  Isles  as  a  source  of  population.  Ever  since  the 
twelfth  century  the  miners  and  artisans  of  Germany  have  been 
spreading  into  the  bordering  countries.  Erom  Spain  to  Lapland, 
from  Lapland  to  the  Black  Sea,  German  settlements  are  every- 
where to  be  found.  Germans  accompanied  the  English  to  Virginia, 
the  Dutch  to  New  Amsterdam,  and  the  Swedes  to  the  Delaware, 
and  they  formed  a  large  proportion  of  the  people  settled  by  Wil- 
liam Penn  in  Pennsylvania.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  Ger- 
man communities  began  to  spring  up  in  the  state  of  New  York  and 
the  Carolinas.  Tempted  by  Law's  famous  scheme,  they  settled  on 
the  Mississippi;  and  as  early  as  1750  the  German  element  in  North 
America  began  to  rival  that  of  the  British  themselves.  The  great 
stimulus  given  to  British  emigration  since  181 5  acted  powerfully 
on  Germany  also.  If  we  look  at  the  tables  of  figures  in  which  these 
facts  arc  registered,  we  see  that  at  every  sudden  push  which  British 
emigrati(jn  makes,  German  emigration  rises  and  falls  with  it, 
like  its  shadow,  following  it  "^  not  only  to  the  United  States,  but 
to  Canada,  the  Austral ias.  and  South  Africa.     The  Germans,  as 

•*  In  tlic  period  iS72-iSSr  eniij^rants  from  Germany  numbered  2,411,000, 
as  agaiuit  1,7^^,000  from  tlie  L'niied  Kinr;dom— MullialFs  ''Dictionary  of  Sta- 
tistics." German  and  llriti-li  immigration  into  the  United  States  was  substan- 
tially equal  in  tlie  decade  1881-1890.  Jn  tlie  ftdlowing  decade  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  again  out:5tripped  Germany  in  the  race. 


T  H  E     O  U  T  L  O  O  K  347 

we  have  seen,  Iiave  also  gone  in  immense  numbers  to  the  nations  of 
South  America,  especially  those  in  its  southern  latitudes.  Though 
the  Germans  have  helped  to  colonize  almost  every  nation  of  old  and 
new  Europe,  they  have  never  formed  a  great  national  colony,  be- 
cause at  home  they  have  never  until  recently  been  a  solid  nation, 
but  a  group  of  loose  peoples,  and  their  present  colonial  enterprise 
is  due  to  their  national  consolidation.  Moreover,  the  laws  under 
which  they  have  lived  at  home  have  not  been  such  as  they  have 
wished  to  reestablish  elsewhere;  they  have  been  glad  to  attach 
themselves  to  communities  where  the  laws  were  juster,  and  the 
society  more  equal.  Conscription,  governments  oppressive  in  the 
minutest  details,  restraints  upon  marriage,  forced  labor,  privileges 
of  the  classes  above  them,  land  laws  either  producing  a  mischievous 
subdivision  of  a  soil  universally  mediocre,  as  in  the  Rhineland,  or 
practically  preventing  it  altogether,  as  in  Austria,  have  impelled 
the  poor  people  of  Germany  to  seek  a  new  life  in  a  Xew  World  by 
a  thousand  inlets.  If  the  German  governments  had  been  wise  in 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  they  might  have  founded 
somewhere  a  Xew  Germany,  which  would  have  rivaled  the  X^ew 
Britain.  Certain  wise  men  pressed  Frederick  the  Great  to  buy 
ships  and  found  colonics;  but  he  answered  that  a  ship  cost  as 
much  as  a  regiment,  and  that  he  preferred  regiments.  This  answer 
tells  us  why  some  European  nations  have  made  solid  offshoots  from 
themselves  in  the  X'ew  World,  and  some  have  not.  The  Germans 
come  next  to  the  vScotcli  and  English  as  successful  emigrants. 
Their  patience,  prudence,  and  love  of  work  are  unrivaled.  The 
German  states  have  contributed  to  emigration  in  different  pro- 
portions. .Austria  has  large,  t]iinly-j:)eopled  countries  belonging  to 
her  in  Eun)])e,  as  Russia  has  in  Asia;  hence  the  surplus  population 
of  Austria,  like  tliat  of  Russia,  has  generally  emigrated  to  new 
seats  in  the  Old  World  instead  oi  wandering  to  the  X'ew.  Bavaria 
and  Prussia  are  the  chief  sources  (^f  German  emigration,  but  it  is 
(liflicult  to  ascertain  the  extent  to  which  it  really  goes  on.  One 
remarkal)le  tiling  about  German  emigration  is  that  it  has  for  the 
most  part  been  carried  on  against  the  will  of  the  German  govern- 
ments. Looking  on  the  ])e(iple  as  tlieir  slaN'cs,  only  l)(v,-n  to  fight 
their  ])att]es  and  till  their  land-,  these  have  naturally  thouglit  it 
unfair  tliat  the  peo])le  should  want  to  forsake  tlieir  fatherland  for 
ease  and  lil)ert_\- ;  it  is  only  wlien  paiii)erisin  lias  been  rife  that  they 
have  fax'ored  the  ino\eineiit.     Since  the  ac(iui>ition  of  colonies  of 


348  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

its  own  the  German  Government  has  tried  in  vain  to  divert  thither 
the  stream  of  German  emigration  which  normally  flows  into  the 
United  States  and  the  British  colonies.  The  New  World  has 
been  to  modern  Germany  what  the  great  free  cities  were  in  former 
times,  a  place  where  liberty  and  honest  labor  could  find  a  refuge 
from  political  and  social  oppression.  The  French  have  never  been 
a  great  emigrating  people.^  The  poor  starved  peasantry  of 
France  in  the  eighteenth  century  could  not  emigrate  as  the  Irish 
and  Germans  have  done,  because  they  w'ere  under  a  strong  central- 
ized government,  because  there  were  no  free  towns  to  serve  as 
outlets,  because  they  knew  less  of  the  New  World,  because  many 
French  colonies  had  disastrously  failed,  and  because  they  had  a 
strong  and  famous  nationality,  w'hicli  they  loved,  in  spite  of  every- 
thing, at  home.  French  emigration  of  any  extent  dates  from 
more  recent  times.  Most  of  the  new  South  American  nations  have 
been  glad  to  take  French  immigrants;  and  some  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands have  gone  to  Algeria.  Belgium,  w-ith  its  very  dense  popu- 
lation, and  perfect  liberty  of  emigration,  has  contributed  greatly  ^ 
to  peopling  the  United  States,  and  in  a  less  degree  to  that  of  South 
America.  In  Holland  the  main  causes  of  emigration  have  been 
w'anting,  and  adventure  has  taken  a  mercantile  rather  than  an  agri- 
cultural direction.  Since  the  loss  of  its  own  colonies,  Holland  has 
contributed  to  swell  the  general  European  outflow ;  but  the  usual 
destination  of  the  Dutch  emigrant  is  still  South  Africa.  The 
Swiss  and  Italians  have  helped  to  people  the  United  States,  Brazil, 
and  the  Plata  River.  The  surplus  poor  population  of  one  or  two 
districts  of  Spain  spreads  chiefly  over  the  neighboring  parts  of 
Europe  and  Africa.  ]\Iany  thousands  have  gone  to  Algeria,  and 
this  has  proved  a  great  help  to  the  French  Government,  for  the 
Spaniards  have  been  taught  by  the  experience  of  centuries  how  to 
deal  with  the  Africans.'''  The  Portuguese  emigrate  chiefly  to 
Brazil.  In  eastern  Europe,  where  the  population  is  very  thin, 
there  was  for  a  long  time  no  impulse  to  emigration.     On  the  con- 

^  From  this  statement  should  be  excepted  the  French  Canadians,  who  nvun- 
bercd  395,427  in  United  States  in  1900. — "  Twelfth  Census  U.  S.,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  732. 

f'  In  1900  there  were  only  29.848  persons  of  Belgian  birth  in  the  United 
States.  The  Dutch  numbered  105,049,  being  one  per  cent,  of  the  total  foreign- 
born  population,  a  percentage  slightly  higher  than  at  any  previous  time. 
— "  Twcltlli   Census  of  U.   S.,"  Vol.  I.,  pp.  clxxi,  732. 

"  More  than  40,000  Spanisli  immigrants  arrived  in  Cuba  in  one  year  under 
the  American  military  occupation. — ■"  Five  Years  in  the  War  Department  Fol- 
lowing the  War  with  Spain,"  p.   116. 


T  H  E     O  U  T  L  O  O  K  349 

trary,  it  ought  to  be  a  field  of  immigration,  and  under  wise  govern- 
ments might  seriously  compete  as  such  with  the  New  World. 
Southern  Russia,  western  and  central  Asia,  and  all  the  countries 
which  have  lately  freed  themselves,  or  are  now  freeing  themselves, 
from  the  blight  of  Turkish  domination,  would,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  irresistibly  attract  western  labor  and  capital ;  never- 
theless a  large  emigration  of  the  peoples  of  eastern  Europe  be- 
gan in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  is  still  in 
progress,  the  large  emigration  of  Italians  being  coincident  in 
time.  In  the  thirty  years  ending  1850,  immigrants  to  the  United 
States  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  its  North  American 
colonies,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia  numbered  2,075,000,  as 
against  less  than  6000  from  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  and 
Poland.  In  the  decade  ending  1880  the  emigration  from  this 
group  of  southern  and  eastern  European  countries  had  swelled  to 
180,000,  but  was  still  only  one-thirteenth  of  that  from  the  north- 
western European  group.  In  the  next  decade  this  ratio  was  as  one 
to  four,  and  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century  approximately  as  six 
to  five.  Emigration  from  the  northwestern  European  group  fell 
off  very  greatly  in  this  last  decade  and  was  actually  less  by  500.000 
than  in  any  other  decade  since  1850.  This  decrease  was  probably 
due  to  the  coincidence  of  industrial  prosperity  in  these  countries  and 
industrial  depression  in  the  United  States.  The  good  times  pre- 
vailing in  America  since  1898  have  again  powerfully  stimulated 
emigration. 

The  great  currents  of  European  emigration  set  toward  the 
United  States  and  the  British  colonies.  Of  17,000.000  emigrants 
in  the  period  1820-1882.  of  whom  half  were  Britisli  subjects,  11,- 
700,000  went  to  the  United  States.  3,800.000  t(3  British  Colonics, 
and  1,500.000  to  South  America.  The  great  bulk  of  all  emi- 
grants were  destined  to  absorption  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

The  chief  points  in  the  history  o\  the  luin^pean  colonies,  or. 
as  it  is  better  to  call  them,  the  ticw  Europe,  are  as  follows:  This 
history  is  divided  into  two  main  periods,  separated  by  a  half-cen- 
tury of  transition  (  iyy^-jf^2^).  Previ(^usly  to  the  said  half-cen- 
tury, all  the  Etu-o])can  colonies,  except  the  solitary  settlement  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  were  in  America.  "  The  Colonies,"  in 
those  days  onlv  meant  America,  with  the  West  Indian  Islands: 
America  was  a  colonial  continent  bel(^nging  in  unecjual  proportions 
to  several  luiroi)ean  nations.     Setting  aside  for  the  moment  the 


350  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

Plantation  colonies,  up  to  1674  there  were  five  America-holding 
nations;  from  thence  until  1763  there  were  four;  and  from  thence 
until  1775  there  were  three  of  these  nations.  Between  1775  and 
1825  the  power  of  all  three  of  these  nations,  after  three  more  or 
less  obstinate  struggles,  was  completely  extinguished,  excepting 
only  in  the  colonies  conquered  at  different  times  by  England  from 
France:  and  instead  of  the  colonies  there  were  now  independent 
nations  in  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  American  conti- 
nent. The  only  parts  of  their  colonial  empires  which  the  five 
European  nations  retained  were  the  West  Indian  Plantations;  and 
Spain  has  recently  lost  all  her  possessions  in  that  quarter  while  the 
other  islands  have  been  for  the  most  part  decreasing  in  importance 
ever  since  1825,  so  that  altogether  we  may  say  that  Europe  has 
no  longer  the  same  kind  of  interest  in  the  Western  Continent  that 
she  had  a  hundred  years  ago.  Since  the  half-century  of  transi- 
tion, each  of  the  independent  states  of  America  has  a  history  of  its 
own.  The  fall  of  the  colonial  empires  in  America  made  the 
European  colonial  nations  turn  their  attention  in  other  directions; 
and  England  has  now  attached  to  her  three  groups  of  colonies, 
most  of  which  have  already  reached  a  stage  quite  corresponding 
to  that  of  the  United  States  at  the  epoch  of  independence.  The 
Canadian  and  the  Australian  groups  are  already  united  by  con- 
federations of  their  own,  and  perhaps  the  same  thing  will  some  day 
take  place  in  the  South  African  group.  England  has  also  built  up 
a  vast  colonial  empire  over  peoples  of  inferior  civilization  and  has 
at  the  same  time  extended  and  solidified  her  empire  in  India.  As 
for  France,  about  the  beginning  of  this  century  England  took  away 
every  one  of  the  rest  of  her  colonies,  just  as  she  had  already  taken 
Acadia  and  Canada ;  but  most  of  them  were  restored,  and  since 
181 5  the  French  have  been  as  busy  as  possible  in  getting  up  a 
new  empire,  partly  colonial,  partly  Oriental,  which  includes  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  fifty  millions,  mostly  of  native  races.  The 
Dutch  have  concentrated  themselves  in  their  rich  Oriental  archi- 
pelago, where  they  have  been  supreme  ever  since  the  massacre  of 
Amljoyna,  excepting  the  short  period,  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago. 
when  the  English  took  away  all  their  colonies  because  they  were 
allies  of  the  French.  The  Spaniards  have  lost  all  their  colonies  in 
America  and  the  Pacific,  retaining  only  insignificant  holdings  in 
Africa,  and  tlie  Portuguese  have  remained  in  stagnation,  while 
English   enterprise  has   taken   possession   of  much   territory   once 


T  H  E     O  U  T  L  O  O  K  351 

claimed  by  Portugal  in  Africa.  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  undertaken 
colonial  enterprises,  and  the  two  latter  nations  have  acquired 
tropical  dependencies  extensive  in  area  and  having  a  large  native 
population.  They  are  not  suited  to  the  development  of  new  com- 
munities of  European  blood  and  civilization.  No  extensive  un- 
peopled temperate  region  remains  on  the  globe  where  the 
achievements  of  the  English  as  nation  builders  in  North  America, 
Australasia,  and  South  Africa,  can  be  rivaled,  unless  it  is  South 
America,  and  the  opposition  of  the  United  States  forbids  any  such 
enterprise  in  that  quarter,  llie  colonial  empires  of  to-day  are  and 
will  remain  a  field  for  European  and  American  industrial  enterprise 
and  for  European  and  American  leadership  in  government  and 
civilization,  but  the  bulk  of  their  population  is  and  must  remain 
non-European.  Altogether,  it  is  plain  that  the  changes  and  growths 
which  make  up  this  history  are  on  a  larger  scale  than  any  others 
that  have  been  known;  and  it  is  this  circumstance,  enhanced  by 
the  sense  of  a  great  and  unknown  future,  which  gives  to  colonial 
history  its  peculiarly  impressive  character. 


THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

UNDER  THE  AMERICAN 

GOVERNMENT 

BY  Jeremiah  W.  Jenks,   Ph.  D.,  LL.   D. 
Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Politics,  Cornell  University 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

UNDER  THE  AMERICAN 

GOVERNMENT' 

Chapter  XX 

IN  Chapter  XVIII.  there  was  a  brief  discussion  of  the  history 
of  the  Phihppine  Islands,  including  the  Spanish  regime,  the 
revolt  of  the  Filipinos  against  the  domination  of  Spain  before 
the  American  occupation,  the  capture  of  Manila  by  the  Americans 
acting  in  conjunction  with  the  Filipinos,  and  a  brief  sketch  of  the 
course  of  events  since  that  time,  including  the  action  against  the 
insurgents  and  some  account  of  the  industrial  and  political  situa- 
tion. Owing,  however,  to  the  importance  of  the  later  history  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  in  its  connection  with  our  government  of 
dependencies,  it  has  seemed  best  to  give  a  somewhat  more 
detailed  account  of  the  motives  and  methods  of  the  American 
Government  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  of  the  results,  up  to  the 
present  time,  of  its  policy,  together  with  a  brief  summary  of  the 
present  political  and  industrial  situation. 

When  the  Americans  took  possession  of  the  city  of  Manila 
they  found  there  engaged  in  business,  with  vested  interests,  a  num- 

1  111  the  preparation  of  this  chapter  \ery  free  use  lias  been  made  of 
the  Reports  of  the  Philippip.e  C(inimi>^ion,  of  the  Insular  Reports  of  the  War 
Department,  of  tlie  Acts  of  Congress  and  of  the  I"'hihppine  Commission,  and  of 
one  or  two  books,  especially  that  by  W.  I".  W'illonpliby  on  "'  Dependencies  of 
the  United  States."  in  which  lie  sumniari/t'>  inaii\-  of  the  acts  of  the  Commis- 
sion. Other  books  regarding  the  Philii)]iines.  such  as  "The  Philippine  Island-," 
by  Dr.  F.  W.  Atkinson,  the  former  Suiierintendcnt  of  Public  Instruction  in  the 
Philippines,  and  "Our  I'hilippine  Pn-iblcui."  by  Dr.  i  I.  P.  Willis,  have  been 
freely  consulted,  'i'lie  judgments  regarding  the  effects  of  various  acts,  the 
purposes  of  the  Government,  etc.,  have  been  detennined  not  merely  from  these 
authorities,  but  also  primarily  from  per-onal  ob.-ervation  in  the  i>lands  and 
from  many  coufereuces  with  otiicials  and  jier-ons  there  in  private  life — Ameri- 
cans, Juiglish.  and  b'ilipino-.  1  have  e-pccially  to  thank  Dr.  E.  W.  Kemmerer, 
the  former  Chief  of  the  Division  of  the  Currency  in  the  Philippine^,  who  lu  _- 
read  the  text  and  made  many  valuable  suggestions. 

;5Ja 


356  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

ber  of  important  English  and  Spanish  banks  and  business  houses, 
together  with  some  less  important  business  establishments  of  other 
nationalities.  In  assuming  the  military  control,  in  accordance  with 
the  recognized  customs  of  war  and  principles  of  international  law, 
they  were  compelled  to  assume  the  responsibility,  so  far  as  this  was 
consonant  with  military  needs,  of  protecting  private  persons  and 
property  of  both  the  foreign  and  native  inhabitants  of  the  Islands, 
and  these  native  inhabitants  had  to  be  considered  by  them  as  a  whole. 
It  would  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  right,  nor  would 
it  be  looked  upon  by  foreign  nations  as  honorable,  to  recognize  any 
class  or  faction  in  the  Islands  at  the  expense  of  the  other  members 
of  the  community. 

When  peace  with  Spain  was  concluded  some  definite  policy  had 
to  be  adopted.  If  the  Islands  were  restored  to  Spain  and  she  were 
to  succeed  in  again  getting  the  control,  the  people  would  be  left 
under  a  government  which  would  probably  be  more  oppressive  than 
ever  before;  if  Spain  should  not  find  herself  able  to  protect  the  in- 
terests of  the  citizens  of  other  countries  who  had  acquired  vested 
interests  in  the  Islands,  there  was  every  reason  to  believe  that  inter- 
national complications  would  arise  which  would  result  in  putting 
the  Islands  under  the  control  of  some  other  European  power.  If 
the  United  States,  after  compelling  the  cession  of  the  Islands  by 
Spain,  were  to  turn  them  over  to  the  Filipinos,  who  were  under 
arms,  and  who  had  assumed  the  name  of  a  government,  this  would 
have  to  be  done  against  the  most  earnest  protest  of  Spaniards,  En- 
glish, and  others  who  had  vested  interests  in  the  Islands,  and  who 
felt  that  they  had  every  reason  to  believe  that  these  interests  would 
not  be  properly  protected  and  cared  for  by  the  native  Filipinos. 
Under  the  circumstances,  they  would  probably  have  appealed  to 
other  governments  to  insure  their  safety,  and  this  again  would 
make  trouble  among  the  nations.  It  seemed,  therefore,  that  no 
other  crjurse  was  left  to  the  United  States  Government  except  to 
take  and  keep,  for  a  time  at  any  rate,  the  responsibility  for  good  and 
safe  government  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  the  control  which 
was  necessary  to  insure  such  government.  As  Secretary  Taft  stated 
in  his  noteworthy  address  delivered  shortly  before  his  retirement 
from  tlie  governorship  of  the  Philippine  Islands:  "If  we  turn  the 
Islands  back  t<)  Spain,  we  sliould  be  guilty  of  a  breach  of  faith  to  the 
people  who  had  worked  and  cotiperated  with  us  in  driving  S^jain 
from  power.     The  United  States  was  responsible  to  the  world  for 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  357 

the  maintenance  of  law  and  order  here  and  was  responsible  to  Spain 
for  the  preservation  of  the  rights  of  her  citizens  and  of  her  corpora- 
tions. It  had,  therefore,  to  decide  whether,  as  a  sovereign  with  the 
responsibihties  of  a  sovereign,  and  with  the  true  interest  of  these 
people  at  heart,  it  could  trust  to  the  chaotic  agglomeration  of  tribes, 
having  no  real  government  except  a  very  imperfect  government  of 
military  force,  to  organize  the  Islands  and  develop  the  people  as 
they  deserved. 

"  The  United  States  decided  that  the  people  were  not  able 
themselves  to  bring  about  any  beneficial  result  which  would  secure 
an  efficient  government,  either  for  the  preservation  of  international 
obligations  or  for  the  elevation  of  the  people  and  the  development 
of  the  country ;  that  self-government,  to  be  a  benefit,  must  be  a 
growth  and  an  education,  and  that  these  people  with  their  three 
hundred  years  of  subjection  to  Spain  had  not  reached  the  point 
where  actual  experience  in  independent  self-government  would  lead 
them  on  to  a  better  understanding  of  it ;  that  tliey  needed  the  help- 
ing and  guiding  hand  of  a  people  who  for  hundreds  of  years  had 
fought  for  individual  liberty  and  popular  rule,  and  who,  therefore, 
knew  something  of  the  difficulties  of  organizing  government  and 
maintaining  it  on  a  popular  basis." 

President  McKinley,  in  his  instructions  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  with  respect  to  the  occupation  of  the  country,  in  his  message  to 
the  military  ofiicers  in  charge  of  the  Islands,  in  his  instructions  to 
the  first  Philippine  Commission,  and  later  in  his  message  to  Con- 
gress, in  connection  with  the  appointment  of  the  Philippine  Civil 
Commission,  made  it  clear  to  all  persons  who  were  willing  to  accept 
his  words  in  good  faith  that  the  American  Government  would  follow 
the  policy  of  administering  tlie  government  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
for  the  benefit  of  its  inhabitants,  and  that  in  that  administration  the 
natives  would  be  given  the  prixilege  oi  self-government  from  the 
beginning  to  as  great  an  extent  as  they  showed  tliennelves  com- 
petent to  exercise  that  power,  h'urthcrmore,  the  inhal)itants  of  the 
Islands,  without  respect  to  their  former  social,  political,  or  eco- 
nomic condition,  would  he  giKirantecd.  by  the  exercise  of  the  full 
])ower  of  the  Unitetl  States,  if  need  be,  the  full  rights  which  the  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  enjoy,  so  far  as  tlu^sc  rights  were  com- 
jjatible  with  orderly  go\'ernincnt  in  tlie  Islands.  It  is  worth  while 
to  recall  here  some  of  the  most  important  of  these  promises  made 
by  the  President,  and  then  to  see  to  what  extent  up  to  the  present 


358  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

time  these  promises  have  been  fulfilled.  The  Commission  was 
charged,  apart  from  giving  to  the  inhabitants  the  benefit  of  a  "  wise 
and  generous  protection  of  life  and  property,"  in  all  their  relations 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  Islands,  to  "  exercise  due  respect  for  all 
the  ideas,  customs,  and  institutions  of  the  tribes  which  compose 
the  population,  emphasizing  upon  all  occasions  the  just  and  benevo- 
lent intentions  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States." 

In  the  proclamation  which  the  Commission  issued  to  the  people 
of  the  Islands,  it  said  that  "  the  aim  and  object  of  the  American 
Government,  apart  from  the  fulfillment  of  the  solemn  obligations 
it  has  assumed  toward  the  family  of  nations  by  the  acceptance  of 
sovereignty  over  the  Philippine  Islands,  is  the  well-being,  the  pros- 
perity, and  the  happiness  of  the  Philippine  people  and  their  elevation 
and  advancement  to  a  position  among  the  most  civilized  peoples  of 
the  world."  It  further  stated  the  most  important  principles  which 
the  United  States  would  follow  in  the  carrying  out  of  its  policy 
as  follows : 

"  The  most  ample  liberty  of  self-government  will  be  granted 
to  the  Philippine  people  which  is  reconcilable  with  the  maintenance 
of  a  wise,  just,  stable,  effective,  and  economical  administration  of 
public  affairs  and  compatible  with  the  sovereign  and  international 
rights  and  obligations  of  the  United  States. 

"  The  civil  rights  of  the  Philippine  people  will  be  guaranteed 
and  protected  to  the  fullest  extent;  religious  freedom  assured,  and 
all  persons  shall  have  an  equal  standing  before  the  law. 

"  Honor,  justice,  and  friendship  forbid  the  use  of  the  Philip- 
pine people  or  Islands  as  an  object  or  means  of  exploitation.  The 
purpose  of  the  American  Government  is  the  welfare  and  advance- 
ment of  the  Philippine  people. 

*'  There  shall  be  guaranteed  an  honest  and  effective  civil  service, 
in  which,  to  the  fullest  extent  practicable,  natives  shall  be  employed. 

"  Such  is  the  spirit  in  which  the  United  States  comes  to  the 
people  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  His  Excellency  the  President  has 
instructed  the  Commission  to  make  it  publicly  known." 

In  his  instructions  to  the  permanent  Commission,  likewise, 
these  general  ])rinciples  were  reafilrmed  and  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant ones  empliasized. 

A  notewortliy  example  of  the  spirit  of  the  present  Commission 
is  found  in  tlie  fact  that  during  tlic  year  1905  tlie  Governor-General 
appointed  a  committee  to  make  a  thorough  and  exhaustive  examina- 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  359 

tion  of  all  the  bureaus  and  ofilces  of  the  Government,  and  to  recom- 
mend needed  reforms.  The  Government  had,  of  course,  been 
organized  at  first  at  a  time  of  very  considerable  confusion  and  dis- 
turbance, shortly  after  the  American  occupation,  and  it  was  felt  that 
the  reorganization  would  probably  result  in  many  savings.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  recommendations  made,  some  bureaus  have  been 
abolished,  others  have  been  able  to  cut  down  their  working  force, 
and  the  result  is  that  there  will  be  made  a  saving  of  at  least  $i,ooo,- 
ooo;  and  this,  although  the  general  administration  had  been  before, 
as  a  rule,  earnest  and  efficient,  the  employees  of  good  character, 
capable  and  willing  to  work.  The  saving  made  "  consists  mainly  in 
the  simplification  of  methods  and  reduction  of  personnel  where  not 
absolutely  required." 

Beyond  any  doubt  in  the  attempt  to  take  up  the  administration 
of  a  dependency  so  far  removed  from  the  territory  of  the  United 
States,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  so  different  from  the  people  of 
the  United  States  in  language,  in  habits  of  thought,  and  in  type  of 
civilization,  mistakes  have  been  made ;  at  times,  even  unfit  agents 
have  been  employed,  and  frequently  the  best  results  have  not  been 
attained ;  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  questionable  whether  we  shall  find 
elsewhere  in  modern  history  an  instance  of  an  administration  of 
alien  territory  carried  on  more  unselfishly  in  the  face  of  annoying 
opposition  of  the  most  exasperating  character,  or  an  example  of 
more  energetic,  more  efiicient,  or  wiser  constructive  statesmanship 
than  has  been  shown  in  the  creation  of  this  new  government  in  the 
Philippine  Islands. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  United  States  Government, 
in  assuming  the  responsibility  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  thought  it 
necessary  to  take  upon  itself  the  sovereignty  and  to  administer  the 
government  itself.  A  must  important  (juestion  arising  at  the  begin- 
ning was  that  as  to  the  relationship  l)et\veen  the  government  of  the 
Islands  when  it  should  be  estahlislied.  and  the  federal  Government 
in  the  United  States.  At  tlic  beginning  the  occupation  was  military 
in  character.  Lender  the  authority  (^f  the  Secretary  of  War  and 
with  tlie  help  of  the  army  (^rder  was  first  established  :  then,  to  a  con- 
siderable degree,  a  civil  government,  including  the  facilities  for 
education  (^f  many  of  the  children,  the  regul.ir  administration  of 
civil  and  criminal  law,  ruid  the  orderly  adniinistraticm  of  society  as 
regards  ])rolcction  tn  business;  and,  somewhat  later,  under  ofiicials 
not  primarily  niilitar\-  ofiicers,  there  was  established  even  a  civil 


360  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

government  in  the  full  sense  of  that  term.  From  the  time  of  the 
occupation  of  the  city  of  Manila,  then,  August  13,  1898,  until  the  act 
of  Congress,  July  i,  1902,  was  put  into  effect,  the  government  is  to 
be  considered  practically  as  an  exercise  in  captured  territory  of  the 
war  powers  of  the  President  applied  in  civil  matters.  By  the  act  of 
July  I,  1902,  Congress  gave  to  the  Philippine  Islands  substantially 
the  status  of  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  subject  entirely,  under 
the  general  provisions  of  the  constitution,  to  the  will  of  Congress, 
which  may  either  enact  legislation  itself  directly,  or  may  delegate 
its  legislative  authority  to  such  agents  as  it  may  select — to  commis- 
sions under  the  appointment  of  the  President,  or,  if  it  thinks  it 
better,  to  the  people  of  the  Islands  themselves  under  whatever 
restrictions  it  sees  fit  to  impose. 

It  is  instructive  to  consider  briefly  the  advantages  to  the 
Filipinos  of  this  system  of  government  by  congressional  will  as 
compared  with  the  advantages  which  they  would  have  enjoyed  if 
the  Islands  had  been  given  the  position  of  a  State  of  the  United 
States,  as  has  been  advocated  by  some  of  the  most  prominent  Fili- 
pinos, who,  while  welcoming  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States 
as  a  necessity  of  the  situation,  still  believe  that  more  power  should 
be  given  to  the  native  Filipinos. 

In  the  consideration,  political  as  well  as  industrial,  of  the  rela- 
tionship existing  between  the  Philippines  and  the  United  States,  one 
should  never  lose  sight  of  the  distance  of  the  Islands,  geograph- 
ically, from  the  home  country,  of  the  differences  in  climate,  and  of 
the  differences  in  populations. 

If  the  Philippine  Islands  were  to  be  admitted  as  a  State  of  the 
Union,  it  would  not  be  possible,  under  our  constitution,  for  them  to 
levy  any  export  duties,  nor  to  have  any  import  tariff  system 
separate  from  that  of  the  United  States.  Whatever  we  may  think 
of  our  present  tariff  system  at  home,  there  can  be  but  one  opinion 
regarding  the  effect  upon  the  Philippine  Islands  of  extending  the 
system  to  them.  The  tariff  which  has  now  been  provided  for  them 
under  act  of  Congress  is,  on  the  whole  and  in  spite  of  a  few 
anomalies,  suited  to  their  needs,  both  as  regards  the  revenue  which 
it  supplies,  and  its  relations  to  the  industries  of  tlie  Islands. 
The  United  States  tariff,  framed  for  entirely  different  conditions, 
would  be  simply  ruinous  from  either  point  of  view. 

Of  less  imjiortance  than  the  question  of  tlie  tariff,  but  still  of 
grave  significance  for  the  welfare  of  the  Islands,  is  the  monetary  sys- 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  361 

tern.  It  has  been  possible  under  the  territorial  form  of  government 
for  Congress  to  provide  a  system  far  better  adapted  to  the  conditions 
of  the  Islands  and  to  the  customs  of  the  people  than  would  be  the 
system  of  the  United  States  itself;  but,  had  the  Islands  taken  the 
position  of  a  State,  no  such  special  provision  could  have  been  made. 

The  coastwise  traffic  of  the  United  States,  as  is  well  known, 
must  be  carried  on  in  American  bottoms.  It  has  been  repeatedly 
proposed  to  extend  this  system  to  the  inter-island  traffic  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  but  Congress  has  from  time  to  time  postponed 
such  extension  under  its  special  power  over  the  territory  in  its 
charge,  and  has  lately  again  extended  the  period  for  the  applica- 
tion of  the  United  States  coastwise  commerce  laws  until  the  year 
1909;  while  under  its  authority  the  Government  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  has  enacted  laws  suitable  to  local  conditions  providing  for 
the  inter-island  traffic. 

Doubtless  other  instances  might  readily  be  found  in  which  the 
Philippines  now  enjoy  the  possibility  and  actuality  of  legislation 
and  administration  adapted  to  their  special  needs,  whereas  if  they 
were  under  State  government  they  would  be,  of  necessity,  compelled 
to  accept  laws  suitable  to  the  other  States  of  the  Union,  but 
markedly  unsuitable  to  tl^eir  cdnditions. 

Although,  as  we  shall  sec,  Congress  has  perhaps  not  in  all 
instances  been  as  liberal  in  its  independent  legislation  as  the  Filipinos 
may  very  properly  desire,  it  still  has  done  more  in  many  respects  in 
the  making  of  suitable  laws  than  would  be  possible  if  the  Philippines 
were  admitted  as  a  State  of  the  Union,  to  say  nothing  of  the  ver}- 
serious  objections  that  would  be  raised  to  any  such  proposition  on 
the  part  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States.  Attention 
is  called  to  this  situation  primarily  because  stateliood  has  been  ad- 
vocated by  some  of  the  wisest  and  most  influential  of  the  Filipinos 
themselves. 

The  fears  of  the  S]).'iniar(ls  and  also  of  many  of  the  Filipinos 
in  the  earlier  days  tliat,  inasmucli  as  tlie  people  of  tlie  United  States 
are  in  large  niajorily  rrolcstanl.  their  go\crnmcnt  would  inter- 
fere with  the  riglits  or  with  tlie  freedom  of  action  of  either  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  or  of  tlie  niilip])ine  people,  most  of  whom 
are  Roman  C.'itbolics.  has  ])ro\e(l  utterly  unfounded.  Full  free- 
dom of  religio'.i  has  l)ccn  enforced.  Owing  to  the  feelir.g  of  hostil- 
ity against  nianv  (*f  the  Spanisli  friars,  tlicy  were  advised  not  to 
attempt  to  return  to  ihe  parishes  from  which  they  had  fled  at  the 


362  COLONIES     OF     THE    WORLD 

time  of  the  Filipino  insurrection,  but  when  in  individual  instances 
they  have  thought  it  best  to  return,  their  personal  safety  has  been 
cared  for  by  the  American  Government. 

On  account  of  the  hostility  displayed  by  the  people  against  the 
friars,  it  was  thought  best  for  the  Government  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  to  purchase  the  lands  owned  by  the  friars  and  use  it  for 
public  purposes  for  the  benefit  of  the  Filipinos  themselves.  The 
Holy  See,  recognizing  that  while  the  Filipinos  were,  generally  speak- 
ing, Roman  Catholics,  they  were  also  bitterly  opposed  to  the  Spanish 
friars,  thought  it  wise  to  supply  them  priests  who  would  be  accept- 
able. In  consequence,  the  archbishop  and  bishops  appointed  to  the 
Philippine  Islands  since  the  American  occupation  have  attempted  to 
supply  the  religious  needs  of  the  people  by  sending  to  them  priests 
who  are  acceptable  to  them.  Then  the  Insular  Government  has 
purchased  the  lands  of  the  friars  at  an  expense,  all  told,  of 
$6,934,427.36.  The  funds  to  make  these  purchases  were  obtained 
through  the  sale  of  the  bonds  of  the  Philippine  Government.  The 
administration  of  the  lands  thus  purchased  has  been  put  under  the 
control  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Lands,  which,  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
is  leasing  the  lands  with  the  intention  of  subdividing  and  selling 
them  to  the  occupants  on  time,  and  at  a  price  substantially  that  of 
the  first  cost  to  the  Government.  It  seems  probable  that,  generally 
speaking,  the  former  tenants  of  the  religious  orders  who  are  the 
present  occupants  will  become  the  owners  of  these  lands  at  very 
reasonable  rates.  Even  though  the  Government  itself  should  sufifer 
some  financial  loss,  the  removal  of  this  disturbing  question  from  the 
possibility  of  political  controversy  is  a  matter  for  congratulation. 

Within  the  Church  itself,  there  has  been,  as  is  well  known,  a 
bitter  controversy  involving  the  ownership  and  possession  of  many 
of  the  churches.  Bishop  Aglipay  organized  an  independent  Filipino 
Church,  which,  with  the  approval  of  the  local  authorities,  in  many 
cases  occupied  a  larger  number  of  the  churches,  convents,  and  ceme- 
teries. These  properties,  having  been  formerly  under  the  control  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  at  that  time  the  sole  orga- 
nized religious  Ijody  in  the  Islands,  naturally  have  been  claimed  by 
that  organization.  In  some  cases  the  Aglipayans  have  dispossessed 
tlie  Roman  Catholics;  in  others  the  Roman  Catholics  have  been  able 
to  hold  possession,  and  have  even  dispossessed  their  rivals.  Mean- 
time the  Government  has  held  itself  entirely  free  from  taking  sides 
except  to  protect  life  and  property.     It  has  determined  that  this  dif- 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  363 

ficult  question  must  be  settled  by  the  courts  in  due  form,  and  in 
order  to  close  as  soon  as  possible  these  controversies,  which  are 
naturally  carried  on  with  much  bitterness,  it  has,  by  special  legisla- 
tion, given  cases  of  this  kind  precedence  in  the  courts. 

When,  further,  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  Roman  Catholics  among 
the  Americans,  so  far  as  they  have  shown  themselves  fit,  have  been 
freely  appointed  to  positions  as  teachers  in  the  public  schools ;  that 
nearly  all  of  the  Filipino  teachers  are  Roman  Catholics;  that  no 
discrimination  has  been  made  against  Roman  Catholics  in  ap- 
pointment to  public  office;  and  that  one  of  the  American  members 
of  the  Commission  is  himself  a  Roman  Catholic,  while  another  has 
had  close  affiliation  with  that  church,  it  becomes  clear  that  all  fear 
of  interference  with  freedom  of  worship  is  baseless. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  facts  in  connection  with  American 
administration  has  been  its  care  for  the  public  health.  In  March, 
1902,  cholera  broke  out  in  the  Islands,  and  becoming  epidemic  con- 
tinued throughout  practically  the  entire  year  of  1903.  The  number 
of  cases  in  all  amounted  to  150,000,  and  the  number  of  deaths  to 
more  than  100,000.  Generally  speaking,  the  number  of  deaths  and 
cases  was  much  larger  in  the  provinces  which  were  scourge-afflicted 
than  in  Manila.  The  difticulties  of  control  seemed  at  first  almost 
insurmountable.  The  pec^ple  had  no  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
the  disease  or  of  its  source.  In  consequence  they  were  inclined  to  be 
suspicious  of  the  sanitary  measures  proposed  by  the  American 
physicians  and  officials;  tlicy  concealed,  so  far  as  possible  among 
themselves,  cases  of  the  disease,  often  even  throwing  the  bodies  of 
the  (lead  into  the  streams,  which  became  thereby  thoroughly  in- 
fected with  the  germs,  and  in  many  cases  they  opposed  actively  the 
measures  taken  in  their  bclialf.  Tlicir  remedies  as  a  rule  were  con- 
fined to  ])raycrs.  to  the  wearing  of  charms,  and  to  similar  supersti- 
tions, while  thev  continued  to  drink  infected  water  and  to  conduct 
their  lives  regardless  (jf  the  sanitary  precautions  recommended  by 
the  medical  authorities. 

h'irst,  in  the  city  of  ]\lanila,  the  Government  was  able,  through 
its  police  force,  strengthened  greatly  by  special  apjiointments  for 
the  juu'pose,  to  keep  the  city  clean,  and  t(^  a  considerable  extent  to 
enforce  rigid  inspection  of  the  markets  rnid  other  places  for  obtain- 
ing food  supplies.  The  go\-ernmcnt  ice  ])]ant  sr.i)plied  distilled  water 
free  for  all  the  poorer  ])ei)plc  who  cared  to  come  to  the  plant  to  get 
it,  a  rigid  (puirantine  of  cholera  cases  was  maintained,  patients  and 


364  COLONIES     OF     THE    WORLD 

those  in  infected  houses  were  taken  to  detention  quarters  until  dan- 
ger of  further  infection  had  been  removed,  and  through  these  rigor- 
ous measures  the  disease  was  never  allowed  to  become  a  serious 
menace  to  those  who  took  any  care  of  their  health,  and  was  com- 
paratively soon  put  down. 

Throughout  the  provinces  sanitary  boards,  acting  generally  in 
concert  with  the  American  military  and  civil  officers,  were  organized 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  There  was,  however,  very  great  ignorance 
on  the  part  of  many  of  the  natives,  even  among  the  officials,  and  in 
many  cases  it  did  not  prove  practicable  to  enforce  the  same  rigid 
systems  of  administration  that  had  been  found  effective  in  Manila. 
Nevertheless,  very  much  was  accomplished  in  the  way  of  saving 
life  and,  particularly,  perhaps,  as  the  disease  gradually  spent  its 
force  or  was  brought  under  control,  in  the  way  of  showing  the 
natives  that  these  extraordinary  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Gov- 
ernment were  made  in  the  interest  of  the  people  themselves. 

When  later,  in  August,  1905,  the  disease  appeared  again  at 
Manila  and  also  at  a  few  places  in  the  interior  not  far  removed 
from  iManila,  it  was  found  much  easier  to  keep  it  under  control. 
A  strict  quarantine  was  imposed  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  disease  by  sea  to  other  islands  or  provinces.  A  cholera 
hospital  was  established  in  Manila  to  take  charge  of  all  cases  ex- 
cepting those  in  Bilibid  Prison,  which  were  managed  inde- 
pendently. An  educational  campaign  was  undertaken  throughout 
the  Islands  by  proper  instructions  translated  into  Spanish  and  the 
more  important  dialects,  and  these  were  widely  distributed.  The 
efficiency  of  the  school  system  in  this  direction  was  very  marked,  as 
these  directions  were  assigned  as  regular  lessons  to  the  school  chil- 
dren throughout  the  Islands,  and  they  were  told  to  give  the  informa- 
tion thus  received  to  their  parents.  The  provincial  and  municipal 
authorities  were  supplied  also  with  the  directions,  which  they  were 
instructed  to  make  known  to  the  people,  and  if  necessary  to  put 
them  into  force  by  the  passage  of  the  needed  ordinances.  The  Chief 
of  Constabulary  distributed  the  information  in  the  same  way 
tlirough  the  constabulary  posts.  In  this  last  outbreak  of  cholera,  in 
a  spirit  quite  different  from  that  manifested  by  many  of  the  church 
authorities  before,  the  American  Archbishop  Harty  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  Bishop  Aglipay  of  the  independent  Filipino  Church, 
cooperated  with  the  authorities  in  distributing  this  information 
through  the  priests  m  all  parts  of  the  islands,  and  in  getting  them  to 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  365 

tell  the  truth  regarding-  the  epidemic  from  their  pulpits,  and  to  en- 
join upon  the  people  the  necessity  of  taking  proper  precautions.  On 
account  of  the  improved  relations  existing  between  the  people  and 
the  authorities,  in  every  part  of  the  Islands  where  cases  appeared,  it 
proved  possible  to  give  information  promptly,  and  the  disease  was 
thus  easily  suppressed.  Whereas,  before,  the  epidemic  cost  more 
than  100,000  lives,  in  1905  the  disease  was  stamped  out  with  a  loss 
of  only  a  few  hundreds  and  only  some  two  to  three  hundred  in  the 
city  of  ]\Ianila. 

The  authorities  seem  also  to  have  been  able  to  get  and  keep  con- 
trol of  the  bubonic  plague.  Although  in  two  or  three  of  the  most 
important  cities  there  have  been  a  few  cases  a  large  part  of  the  time, 
it  has  been  possible  to  ])revcnt  the  disease  from  becoming  epidemic. 

A  good  hospital  for  the  insane  has  been  established.  A  leper 
colony  which  had  been  under  consideration  for  some  years  has  finally 
been  put  into  effective  condition  during  the  last  year,  so  that  as  rap- 
idly as  possible  lepers  are  being  segregated.  Some  valuable  medical 
discoveries  seem  also  to  have  been  made  in  connection  with  the  treat- 
ment of  leprosy,  although  as  yet  it  is  too  early  for  the  physicians  to 
express  more  than  some  degree  of  hope  of  the  general  success  of 
their  experiments.  It  is  known  that  in  individual  cases  they  have 
proved  successful. 

Smallpox  had  been  prevalent  in  some  of  the  provinces  of  the 
Islands  for  many  years,  and  many  people  show  the  evidence  of  the 
ravages  of  this  disease  under  tlie  earlier  fc^rms  of  government.  In 
some  of  the  worst  provinces  it  lias  been  possible  practically  to  eradi- 
cate the  disease.  In  one  year  in  the  city  of  Manila  more  tlian 
200.000  persons  were  vaccinated  1)y  tlie  PxKird  of  Health,  besides 
those  vaccinated  by  private  j^hysicians.  The  number  of  cases  and 
deaths  are  now  so  few  as  to  be  almost  negligible,  jiractically  all  df 
the  cases  in  Manila  coming  in  from  outside.  In  the  provinces  the 
campaign  against  the  disease  is  being  steadily  carried  on.  More 
than  a  million  people,  o\cr  onc-eiglith  of  the  entire  ]:)opulation,  were 
vaccinated  during  the  year  1005,  and  it  seems  probable  that  within 
a  short  time  the  disease  will  be  as  well  under  control  in  the  Philip- 
pines as  in  the  United  States. 

P)esi(lcs  the  \-er\-  effect i\-e  measures  taken  by  the  Government  in 
getting  control  of  disc'i^cs  which  seemed  io  ha\-e  become  established 
in  the  Islands  and  in  liolding  in  check  epitlcmics.  much  credit  is  t(^ 
be  given  it  for  the  scicutihc  study  which  it  has  made  of  many  of 


366  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

these  diseases.  There  has  been  for  some  years,  besides  the  hospitals 
and  the  health  officers,  a  special  laboratory  where  investigations  and 
experiments  of  the  greatest  importance  have  been  continually  car- 
ried on  and  from  v^^hich  have  appeared  publications  of  the  highest 
value.  Possibly  no  other  service  done  directly  by  the  Americans 
has  been  of  greater  service  to  the  Filipinos  than  the  work  of  the 
sanitary  authorities  in  preventing  and  combating  diseases.  Within 
the  last  five  years,  very  much  of  the  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
Filipinos  arising  from  suspicion  and  ignorance  has  been  dispelled, 
and  in  the  not  distant  future  we  may  expect  a  cooperation  as  great 
as  that  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  highly  civilized  countries  where 
there  is  a  large  percentage  of  ignorant  people. 

It  seems  probable  that  no  other  policy  of  the  American  Govern- 
ment has  met  with  more  general  condemnation  on  the  part  of  other 
peoples  interested  in  colonies  in  the  Far  East  than  its  policy  provid- 
ing for  general  education  of  the  Filipino  people.  It  has  been  thought 
by  many  that  this  education  would  be  a  mere  waste  of  money  and 
energy;  by  others  that  it  was  likely  to  result  in  direct  injury  to  the 
Government  from  training  up  persons  who  would  become  dangerous 
idlers  in  the  community,  ready  to  promulgate  revolutionary  doc- 
trines. It  is,  of  course,  as  yet  too  early  to  judge  of  the  ultimate 
effects  of  education,  but  the  evidences  of  the  eager  desire  on  the  part 
of  the  Filipinos  themselves  for  education,  and  the  way  in  which  the 
work  is  being  done,  with  its  apparent  effects,  can  be  made  clear. 
Under  the  Spanish  administration,  as  is  well  known,  the  method  of 
instruction  in  the  public  schools  was  largely  a  mere  learning  by 
rote  of  text-book  questions  and  answers  alike,  which  gave  practically 
no  training  excepting  of  memory,  and  very  little  information  that 
proved  of  lasting  importance.    The  results  were  naturally  meager. 

The  last  report  of  the  General  Superintendent  of  Education 
for  the  year  1905  gives  some  very  important  facts  regarding  the 
present  situation.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1905, 
the  amount  expended  for  educational  purposes  from  insular  funds 
reached  2,827,450  pesos,  from  provincial  funds  78,918.40  pesos, 
and  from  municipal  funds,  1,797,547.67  pesos,  or  in  all  4,703,916.07 
pesos  r $2, 3 5 1,958.03). 

More  interesting  still,  perhaps,  than  the  amount  of  money  sup- 
plied by  taxation,  is  that  provided  voluntarily  from  private  sources. 
So  eager  have  the  people  been  in  many  cases  to  secure  schools  that, 
in  the  form  of  gifts  of  land,  materials,  labor,  money,  etc.,  there  were 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  367 

t 

contributed  during"  that  same  year,  chiefly  for  the  erection  of  school 
buildings,  232,988.33  pesos  ($116,494.16).  It  is  well  known,  of 
course,  that  besides  these  direct  contributions  for  the  public  schools, 
the  expenses  of  a  young-  man  or  woman  at  school  are  often  paid 
by  relatives.  But  in  spite  of  the  showing  given,  as  yet  there  has 
been  a  great  deal  of  difficulty  in  getting  for  the  schools  the  proper 
amount  of  money  to  be  raised  by  the  local  authorities  through 
taxation. 

More  significant  perhaps  to  most  readers  than  the  amount  of 
money  expended  is  the  record  of  attendance ;  more  significant  still  is 
the  quality  of  the  work.  In  the  year  1903  the  Commission  reported 
great  satisfaction  in  the  noteworthy  increase  in  the  school  attendance 
in  all  of  the  provinces  with  one  exception.  Even,  then,  however, 
only  about  150,000  students  were  in  attendance.  In  Alarch,  1905, 
only  two  years  later,  the  total  number  of  children  enrolled  in  the 
primary  schools  for  the  year  amounted  to  501,000.  This,  it  should 
be  remembered,  was  accomplished  without  compulsory  attendance, 
and  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  general  superintendent  that  it  is  due  to 
a  "gradual  awakened  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Filipino  parents 
for  education  for  their  children."  At  the  present  time  the  attend- 
ance is  running  beyond  the  equipment,  so  that  it  has  been  tliought 
best  to  hold  down  for  a  time  the  enrollment  in  the  primary  schools 
by  cutting-  out  the  youngest  pupils.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  furtlier 
means  can  be  provided  promptly.  It  is  a  satisfaction  to  note  also 
that  as  time  goes  on  the  quality  of  the  work  is  steadily  improving. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  Government  to  bring  a  primary  education, 
at  any  rate,  within  the  reach  of  the  children  in  every  part  of  the 
Christiarized  provinces.  I\Iost  of  the  Filipino  population  are 
farmers,  a  large  majority  of  whom  own  their  farms,  and  yet 
most  of  these  men  at  the  present  time  are,  according  to  the  superin- 
tendent, in  absolute  ignorance  regarding  such  "  practical  matters 
as  loans  on  crops,  rates  of  interest,  commissions,  profit-sharing, 
etc."  It  is  estimated  that  of  the  some  seven  millions  of  Christian- 
ized inhabitants,  at  least  six  and  one-half  millions  are  now  helplessly 
illiterate.  It  seems  tliat,  if  tliesc  people  are  to  be  put  into  a  position 
to  look  after  their  own  business  and  their  own  rights  as  citizens, 
they  must  be  given  the  elements  of  an  education. 

The  nature  of  the  instruction  to  l)e  offered  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance. In  different  parts  of  the  Islands  tliere  are  many  different 
languages  spoken.     If  there  is  to  be  unity   of  action  among  the 


368  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

people  in  any  political  way,  it  is  essential  that  they  be  given  some 
medium  of  communication  which  shall  be  generally  understood. 
Moreover,  the  native  languages  have  no  literature  of  consequence; 
and  if  the  Filipinos  are  to  come  in  touch  with  literature  of  a  high 
type  they  must  become  familiar  with  one  of  the  great  modern 
languages.  This  language  must,  of  course,  be  English,  and  English 
is,  therefore,  generally  taught.  Besides  a  knowledge  of  English 
sufficient  to  enable  them  to  read  and  write,  an  effort  will  be  made 
to  give  them  the  elements,  at  any  rate,  of  arithmetic,  and  some  slight 
knowledge  of  geography.  So  far  they  are  given  three  years  in 
reading  and  writing  English,  two  years  in  number  work,  ciphering 
and  keeping  accounts,  and  one  year  in  elementary  geography.  In 
addition  to  these  branches,  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  instruc- 
tion given,  more  or  less  incidentally,  which  is  fitted,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, to  the  future  needs  of  the  boy  or  the  girl.  Such  topics  are 
those  of  personal  hygiene,  bodily  exercise,  conduct,  training  in  agri- 
culture, or  in  the  industries  which  happen  to  be  the  prominent  ones 
in  the  special  locality,  and  finally  in  the  fundamental  civil  rights  and 
duties  of  the  people  as  provided  by  law. 

The  provincial  high  schools  are  becoming  primarily  technical 
training  schools,  intended  to  fit  graduates  of  the  course  for  some 
useful  vocation.  The  period  covered  is  from  three  to  four  years. 
All  of  the  students  have  some  work  in  literature  and  history,  and  a 
general  course  is  intended  to  fit  the  students  for  entrance  to  college 
in  the  United  States.  Besides  this,  there  are  courses  in  teaching,  in 
commerce,  in  agriculture,  and  in  arts  and  crafts.  All  of  these 
students  study  English;  Latin,  Spanish,  and  French  are  electives, 
and  some  one  of  these  languages  is  taught  in  each  of  the  high 
schools.  Most  of  the  schools  have  a  good  equipment  for  manual 
training  and  carpentry,  and  practically  all  of  them  have  ample  land 
for  school  farms. 

Between  the  primary  schools  and  the  high  schools  mentioned 
above  are  the  intermediate  schools.  These  are  intended  to  give  a 
somewhat  more  extended  course  to  the  pupils  who  finish  the  primary 
work  but  are  not  able  to  take  work  in  the  high  school,  as  well  as  to 
serve  as  a  means  of  preparatory  training  for  those  who  wish  later  to 
enter  the  high  school  or  eventually  college.  Inasmuch  as  so  large  a 
proportion  of  the  pupils  will  not  be  able  to  take  the  higher  work, 
emphasis  is  laid  upon  industrial  education  in  these  intermedi- 
ate schools.     "  For  the  boys  there  are  two  years  of  practical  in- 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  369 

struction  in  g'ardening-  and  agricnltnre,  and  one  year  in  tool  work, 
carpentry  and  iron  work.  The  girls  are  taught  sewing,  housekeep- 
ing, house  sanitation,  serving  of  meals,  care  of  the  sick,  etc."  Every 
intermediate  school  is  considered  not  properly  equipped  unless  pro- 
vision is  made  for  this  industrial  training.  In  addition  to  these 
general  schools,  there  is  the  Philippine  School  of  Arts  and  Trades 
in  Manila,  as  well  as  a  School  of  Commerce. 

So  much  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  American  teacher 
that  it  is  important  to  note  the  position  that  he  holds.  In  1905  there 
were  in  all,  including-  the  tempov3.ry  appointees,  855  American 
teachers.  Of  this  number  about  250  were  engaged  in  secondary  and 
intermediate  instruction  in  the  provincial  and  special  schools,  a 
somewhat  smaller  number  in  intermediate  schools  outside  of  the 
provincial  capitals,  and  the  others  in  the  superv-ision  of  school  dis- 
tricts. Nearly  all  of  the  supervising  teachers  are  naturally  Amer- 
icans, since  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  reorganize  completely  all 
the  methods  of  instruction,  as  well  as  the  courses  of  study  of  the 
entire  archipelago.  There  were,  however,  in  1905,  thirty-two  Fili- 
pinos engaged  in  this  supervising  duty,  and  others  are  assigned  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  Under  each  supervisor  there  are  from  six  or 
eight  to  twenty-five  separate  schools  which  he  must  inspect  and 
supennse.  Usually  he  rides  on  horseback  from  place  to  place,  and 
often  must  run  considerable  risk  from  contagious  diseases,  from 
swollen  streams,  from  robl)ers,  and  from  exposure  of  other  kinds. 
In  many  cases,  this  su])ervising  teacher  is  the  only  exponent  of 
American  ideas  in  the  entire  district  under  his  charge.  He  must 
not  merely  train  the  teachers  so  far  as  possible,  but  he  must  keep 
in  touch  with  municipal  officials  and  with  the  public  generally  of 
his  district.  Tic  must  attend  meetings  of  the  councils  t()  explain  to 
them  the  needs  of  the  schools ;  he  is  responsible  for  the  school 
])roperty,  including  the  text-books,  and  is  expected  to  become  an 
authority  on  the  geogra])hy  and  social  Cf^nditions  of  his  district. 
The  work  calls  for  (jualifications  of  the  highest  order,  and  it  is  a 
gratification  to  know  that  many  men  are  doing  this  most  arduous 
work  in  a  p.'itriotic  sj)irit  calling  for  tlie  highest  commendation. 

The  teaching  corps,  sf)  far  as  I)oth  Americans  and  Filipinos  are 
C(TnceniC(l,  is  also  improving  in  (|uality,  the  general  superintendent 
report^,  bv  a  procc-s  of  weeding  out  tlie  incfilcient  and  promoting 
the  efficicn.t.  (^\  the  teachers  cming  of  late  years,  a  larger  propor- 
tion seem  to  he  willing  to  stay  in  the  i>Iands  a  longer  period  of  time, 


370  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

and  there  is  a  noticeable  improvement  in  the  health  of  the  teaching 
force.  Of  the  American  teachers,  the  records  show  that  the  average 
absence  from  duty  on  account  of  ilhiess  is  now  only  three  days 
per  year,  although  these  figures  include  the  long  absences  occa- 
sioned by  accidents  or  disasters  not  peculiar  to  the  country.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  health  of  the  American  teaching  force  in 
the  Islands  is  now  about  as  good  as  that  of  the  teachers  of  the 
United  States. 

Every  effort  is  being  made  to  encourage  the  Filipino  teachers 
and  to  increase  their  number.  In  1904  the  number  of  Filipino 
teachers  was  3134;  in  1905,  with  only  thirty  provinces  reported, 
there  were  4036 — 2820  men,  1216  women.  In  this  entire  number 
only  385  were  school  teachers  under  the  Spanish  regime,  and  only 
518  of  the  entire  number  of  teachers  were  graduates  of  the  Spanish 
secondary  schools;  so  that  more  than  85  per  cent,  of  the  present 
force  have  been  trained  by  American  teachers  since  the  establish- 
ment of  the  present  system.  The  method  of  training  the  teachers  is 
mainly  by  regular  instruction  throughout  the  year  given  by  the 
supervising  teachers,  and  by  the  instruction  given  them  during  a 
normal  institute  which  each  year  one  is  expected  to  attend  at  some 
time  during  the  school  year.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  superintendent 
that  the  success  of  the  school  system  in  the  Philippines  must  rest 
ultimately  upon  the  success  of  the  Filipino  teacher,  but  he  is  also  of 
the  opinion  that,  in  spite  of  the  many  deficiencies  which  he  as  yet 
must  show,  "  the  question  of  his  competency  is  no  longer  in 
doubt." 

In  1903  it  was  thought  desirable  to  make  the  experiment  of 
sending  each  year  to  the  United  States  a  number  of  young  Filipinos 
for  education.  In  this  way  young  men  of  exceptional  ability  would 
become  acquainted  at  first  hand  with  conditions  in  the  United  States, 
.'ukI,  presumably,  on  their  return  would  be  able  to  spread  this  knowl- 
edge of  the  American  people  and  American  institutions  widely 
among  their  people.  On  the  other  hand  an  advantage  scarcely  less 
important  would  be  that  tlic  American  people,  by  coming  into  con- 
tact with  a  number  of  young  Filipinos  of  tlie  abler  and  better  type, 
would  gain  for  the  Filipinos  a  respect  and  sympathy  which  possibly 
in  many  cases  tliey  do  not  now  possess.  Provision  was  made  at 
first  for  the  appointment  of  100  students.  Ilie  appropriation  bill  for 
tlie  year  1904-1905  autliorizcd  the  appointment  of  forty  more,  and 
the  number  during  the  latter  part  of   1905  in  attendance  in  the 


THE     PHILIPriNE     ISLANDS  371 

United  States  was  141.  The  students  to  be  sent  to  America  at  the 
government  expense  are  selected  from  those  who  have  passed  an 
examination  severe  enough  to  test  their  capacity  for  work.  In 
many  instances  at  first  those  sent  were  fit  only  for  entrance  into 
American  high  schools.  The  test  is,  however,  gradually  becoming 
more  severe,  so  that  eventually  students  going  to  America  will  be 
ready  to  enter  American  universities.  Besides  these  government 
students,  a  considerable  number  have  been  sent  to  the  United  States 
by  their  families  at  their  own  expense.  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  this  personal  contact  with  American  conditions  on  the 
part  of  these  able  young  men,  most  of  whom  will  become  men  of 
influence  at  home,  will  have  a  noteworthy  and  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  relations  between  the  United  States  and  the  Philippines. 

The  first  requisite  for  good  government  in  any  country  is 
peace  and  security  for  life  and  property.  Even  during  the  time 
of  the  military  administration  the  United  States  Government,  look- 
ing ahead  to  the  days  of  civil  administration,  decided  that  it  was 
wise  to  organize  a  native  police  force,  which  should  not  only  keep 
order  in  the  various  municipalities,  but  which,  organized  and  drilled 
to  a  considerable  extent  b}'  military  methods.  sh(nild  l)e  al)le.  by  being 
employed  in  larger  companies,  to  take  an  active  part  in  su])pressing 
bands  of  highwaymen  or  other  organized  bodies  threatening  the 
public  peace.  As  soon  as  any  part  of  the  territory  was  turned  over 
to  the  civil  authorities  this  native  constabulary  under  American 
officers  took  charge  of  the  keeping  of  peace,  doing  the  police  work 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  both  city  and  country. 

The  enlisted  strength  of  the  constabulary  in  1905  was  6967 
men  and  327  officers.  The  work  of  the  constabulary  under  Briga- 
dier General  Allen,  who  organized  it  and  has  been  its  chief  contin- 
uously since,  has  been  very  efticient  on  the  whole,  in  spite  of  many 
drawbacks.  It  has  gi\-cn  emplnymcnt  to  many  Filipinos  in  different 
jx-irts  of  the  Islands,  who  have  aided  in  keeping  the  peace,  and  who 
otherwise  might  ha\c  l)ccn  much  less  profitably  employed.  It  has 
also  reduced  to  a  very  great  extent  the  cost  of  keejiing  peace  by 
American  soldiers  or  policemen,  which  would  naturally  ha\'e  been 
mucli  greater,  the  ax'cnigc  cost  (^(  th.e  American  soldiers  being  nearly 
double  that  oi  the  members  of  tlie  constabulary.  l'\n-thermore,  the 
I'^ilipinos  ha\e  had  the  satisfaction  of  feeling  that  they  were,  in  a 
most  important  particular,  under  the  C(^ntrol  of  their  own  peoi^le. 

The  conirol   iif  bands   of  higlnva\nien    ( ladroncs)    is  in   anjr 


372  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

country  such  as  the  Philippines  a  very  important  and  difficult  mat- 
ter. The  British  Government  in  upper  Burmah  has  been  consider- 
ably troubled  for  years  in  this  respect,  and  the  Spaniards  throughout 
the  period  of  their  occupation  of  the  Philippines  had  always  dif- 
ficulty in  suppressing  these  bands.  Since  the  American  occupation 
the  leaders  of  these  organized  bands  in  many  instances  have  posed 
as  patriots  who  were  intending  to  establish  a  republic  and  to  give 
self-government  to  the  people.  Probably  in  a  few  instances  this 
feeling  has  been  sincere,  but  the  mere  statement  of  the  purpose  under 
existing  circumstances  shows  at  once  at  least  the  lack  of  judgment 
of  those  so  acting.  The  type  of  leadership  can  be  gathered,  in  part, 
from  some  of  the  experiences  within  the  last  year  or  two  in  certain 
of  the  provinces  of  Luzon,  near  Manila,  where  the  ladrones  com- 
mitted many  depredations,  until  the  Government  finally  decided  that 
for  the  protection  of  the  people  prompt  and  severe  action  must  be 
taken,  and  United  States  troops  joined  with  the  constabulary  in 
stamping  out  the  evil.  Some  of  these  bands  of  ladrones,  whose  lead- 
ers were  giving  themselves  such  titles,  for  example,  as  "  Dictator  of 
the  Filipino  Republic,"  taken  by  Sakay,  and  "  Lieutenant-General 
of  the  Army  of  Liberation,"  used  by  Montalon,  showed  distinctly 
their  character  by  their  acts.  Sakay  was  an  ex-barber,  with  about  a 
dozen  followers,  while  the  followers  of  Montalon  were  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  escaped  prisoners  from  the  military  prison.  They  stole 
cattle,  burned  houses  in  their  search  for  plunder,  and  intimidated  the 
law-abiding  Filipinos  by  threats  and  barbarities.  Friendly  Filipinos 
who  gave  information  to  the  authorities,  they,  in  some  instances, 
murdered;  in  others  they  cut  off  ears  or  lips  and  then  turned  their 
victims  loose.  Men  who  had  acted  as  guides  to  the  constabulary 
had  the  tendons  of  their  legs  severed.  Several  municipal  officers 
who  had  given  information  in  regard  to  them  were  similarly  mal- 
treated. During  the  last  year,  however,  practically  all  of  these  bands 
have  been  captured,  and  their  guns  secured;  so  that,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  or  two  somewhat  remote  districts  in  Luzon,  and  more 
particularly  in  one  or  two  southern  provinces  of  the  Islands  and  in 
Mindanao,  where  the  Moros  are  still  hostile  in  their  attitude,  the 
Islands  may  be  said  to  be  under  complete  control,  and  life  and  prop- 
erty safe.  In  one  or  two  of  the  extreme  instances,  as  has  l)een  said, 
United  States  troops  have  aided  in  securing  control ;  but  in  most 
cases  outside  of  Mindanao  the  credit  is  due  to  the  constabulary. 

The  Philippine  scouts,  an  organization  of  some  5000  l^'lipinos 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  373 

forming  part  of  the  American  army  under  the  army  organization, 
have  proved  very  efficient.  Recently  they  have  been  assigned  for 
duty  under  tlie  direction  of  the  Governor-General  and  have  rendered 
excellent  aid  in  suppressing  the  ladrones. 

Possibly  in  no  other  way  have  the  Filipinos  of  the  poorer  classes 
been  able  to  note  the  difference  between  the  Spanish  and  American 
systems  of  government  better  than  in  the  administration  of  justice 
by  the  courts.  As  soon  as  it  became  clear  that  the  Americans  were 
to  set  up  a  civil  government  which  should  be  thoroughgoing  and, 
relatively  speaking,  permanent,  the  administration  turned  its  atten- 
tion to  the  organization  of  ri  system  of  courts.  Since  its  first  estab- 
lishment there  have  been  some  slight  changes,  but  none  of  great 
importance.  At  the  head  of  the  system  stands  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  Philippine  Islands,  from  which  an  appeal  lies  directly  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  This  Supreme  Court  consists 
of  a  chief  justice  and  six  associate  justices  with  salaries  of  $10,500 
for  the  chief  justice  and  $10,000  for  each  associate  justice.  It  is 
further  provided  that  if  by  reason  of  temporary  disability  of  any 
member  of  the  Supreme  Court  or  by  reason  of  vacancy  a  quorum 
should  not  be  present  for  business,  the  Governor-General  may  desig- 
nate judges  of  the  Court  of  First  Instance  to  act  temporarily  as 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court.  This  enables  the  court  at  any  time 
to  do  business.  FrcMii  the  beginning  the  chief  justice  has  been  a 
distinguished  Filipin(\  and  some  of  the  other  justices  of  this  court 
are  also  natives  of  the  Islands. 

Next  to  the  Su])rcmc  Court  stand  the  Courts  of  First  Instance, 
of  which  there  shall  be  at  least  one  for  each  organized  province, 
with  additional  judges  for  the  court  in  Manila,  some  of  whom  may 
be  designated  by  the  Ciovcrnor-Gcneral  to  act  in  the  provinces  when- 
ever there  shall  be  need.  These  courts  ha\e  original  jurisdiction  in 
important  cix'il  cases,  in  all  matters  of  ])robate.  in  the  ap]wintment 
of  trustees,  rcccixcrs,  etc.,  and  in  criminal  cases  where  the  penalty 
that  may  be  inii)o<C(l  exceeds  six  months'  im])risonment  or  a  fine  of 
$100.  To  it  arc  a])peale<l  cases  from  the  justices  of  the  peace. 
In  these  courts  al-o  the  iMlijiinos  have  had  representation. 

Throughout  the  Inlands,  justices  of  the  peace  are  t(^  be  ap- 
pointed in  each,  municijjality  which  was  organized  under  the  munici- 
pal code  in  a  pro\ince  with  a  Court  of  I'irst  Instance.  These  courts 
ha\-e  the  right  to  try  all  cases  of  misdemeanor  and  cases  where  the 
sentence  tliat  ma\'  he  imposed  does  not  exceed  six  months'  imprison- 


374.  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

ment  or  a  fine  of  $ioo,  together  with  civil  actions  involving  less 
than  $300 — unless  for  some  special  reason  jurisdiction  in  these 
cases  has  been  given  to  the  Courts  of  First  Instance.  The  justices 
of  the  peace,  instead  of  having  regular  salaries,  receive  their  pay  in 
fees  of  three  pesos  for  each  action  tried.  In  criminal  cases  the  fee  is 
paid  by  the  municipality,  but  is  taxed  against  the  defendant  as  part 
of  the  costs  if  he  is  convicted  and  sentenced  to  pay  costs.  All  fees 
are,  however,  turned  in  by  the  justice  to  the  municipal  treasurer,  and 
are  repaid  later  to  the  justice  after  due  audit. 

Besides  the  regular  justices  of  the  peace,  mayors  of  munici- 
palities have  jurisdiction  over  the  violation  of  municipal  ordinances, 
which  is  in  its  nature  an  extension  of  the  function  of  these  courts. 

The  justices  of  the  peace,  all  of  wdiom  are  Filipinos, 
together  with  any  auxiliary  justices,  are  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor-General with  the  approval  of  the  Commission  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  provincial  boards.  Owing  to  the  duties  im- 
posed upon  the  justices  and  the  small  compensation,  many  of 
those  first  appointed  resigned,  the  people  apparently  not  feeling 
the  honor  attached  to  the  position  to  the  same  degree  as  do  jus- 
tices in  England,  for  example.  On  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
filling  these  places,  doubtless  men  who  are  not  of  the  highest  char- 
acter have  at  times  been  appointed,  and  there  have  been  numerous 
complaints  that  they  have  abused  their  authority  and  practiced  ex- 
tortion. Wherever  it  has  been  possible  to  prove  such  a  case  the 
justice  has  been  removed,  but  naturally  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
reach  all  cases.  Various  methods  of  reform  have  been  suggested, 
but  it  has  finally  been  recommended  by  the  Governor-General  that 
the  judges  of  the  Courts  of  First  Instance  investigate  and  make 
recommendations  for  appointments;  tliat  they  also  hold  sessions  of 
instruction  for  the  justices  within  their  provinces,  in  order  to  fit 
them  better  for  the  performance  of  their  duties;  that  they  oversee 
the  manner  in  which  these  duties  are  perf(M-med,  and  take  prompt 
measures  for  the  correction  of  abuses ;  and  that  there  be  certain 
changes  in  the  form  of  procedure  in  criminal  cases,  which  will  re- 
lieve scjincwhat  tlie  burdens  imposed  on  tlie  justices.  There  is  every 
reason  lu  believe  that  with  these  changes  the  former  abuses  will 
largely  (lisa])])car.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  justices  of  the  peace 
are  all  I'ilipinos  and,  in  consec|uencc.  ])ersons  not  acquainted 
with  the  usual  procedure  of  American  courts,  and  persons,  moreover, 
who  unfortunately  have  been  accustomed  to  the  procedure  under  the 


THE     rHTLIPPINE     ISLANDS  375 

Spanish  Government,  where,  in  many  cases,  the  animating  motive 
of  the  courts  did  not  seem  to  be  justice,  but  rather  the  desire  to 
secure  the  largest  financial  advantage.  It  is  well  known,  and  ap- 
parently undenied,  that  before  the  American  occupation  in  most  in- 
stances the  poor  man  and  the  man  of  little  social  standing  had  prac- 
tically no  rights  that  could  be  enforced  against  one  of  the  principalcs 
in  any  community.  The  judges  were  open  to  bribery,  and  still  more, 
perhaps,  to  social  influence.  Now  it  is  gradually  coming  to  be  under- 
stood that,  under  American  judges,  in  the  eye  of  the  law  all  are 
equal.  In  many  instances  the  rights  of  helpless  women  and  children, 
as  well  as  of  those  of  the  ignorant  poor  man,  have  been  upheld 
against  influential  and  wealthy  oppressors,  so  that  there  seems  to 
be  coming  among  the  people  a  knowledge  of  law  and  justice  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  sense  of  those  expressions. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  under  the 
system  of  government  which  places  the  Philippines  under  direct 
control  of  Congress,  it  has  been  possible  to  establish  for  the  Philip- 
pines a  tarifif  system  independent  of  that  in  the  United  States. 
Great  care  was  taken  in  framing  this  act  so  as  to  fit  it  to  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  act  was  first  passed  by  the 
Commision  and  afterward,  with  amendments,  approved  by  Con- 
gress, so  as  to  give  to  it  the  authority  of  congressional  action.  Later 
a  special  committee,  consisting  of  the  acting  collector  of  customs 
for  the  Philippine  Islands,  two  of  his  deputies,  and  three  prominent 
merchants  of  ^lanila,  made  a  special  study  of  the  system,  and  re- 
ported changes  which  seemed  to  tlieni  necessary  to  the  best  interests 
of  the  islands.  The  testimony  of  many  witnesses  was  taken  and  a 
system  perfected  as  nearly  as  possible.  This  was  afterward  con- 
sidered fully  by  tlie  Commission,  and  recommendations  were  again 
made  to  Congress,  many  of  wliicli  were  aj)iirove(l.  In  the  main,  the 
act  imposes  specific  instead  of  ad  z'alorrni  duties  upon  imports.  The 
rates  are,  generally  speaking,  not  so  high  as  those  in  the  United 
States.  Very  careful  attention  was  paid  tn  tlie  revenue-producing 
features  of  tlie  act,  wln'le  tlie  safeguarding  of  tlie  interests  of  estab- 
lished industries  was  by  no  means  lost  sight  of.  ^yforeover,  on  cer- 
tain articles,  especially  tliose  in  which  the  Islands  have  practically  a 
monopoly,  such  as  licni]-).  c\']VM"t  duties  were  lex'ied.  The  modifica- 
tions of  Congress  which  seem  detrimental  to  the  Islands  are  men- 
tioned later. 

In  order,  h(nvc\Tr,  to  bring  about  as  close  commercial  relations 


376  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

as  possible  between  the  Islands  and  the  United  States,  the  Commis- 
sion has  felt  it  advisable  to  raise  a  considerable  part  of  their  revenue 
from  internal  taxes  of  various  kinds,  and  in  consequence  they  have 
levied  internal  revenue  taxes,  and  a  land  tax,  lately  suspended  for  a 
time.  In  its  act  of  1902,  Congress  provided  that  all  export  duties 
imposed  upon  articles  sent  to  the  United  States  and  consumed  there 
should  be  refunded,  a  provision  which  applied  principally  to  hemp 
exported  to  the  United  States,  and  which  deprived  the  Islands  of 
a  very  considerable  revenue — $486,575.56  for  the  fiscal  year  1905 — 
to  the  benefit,  doubtless,  of  the  cordage  manufacturers  in  the  United 
States,  but  apparently  a  discrimination  in  their  favor  which  the 
Filipinos  had  good  ground  for  objecting  to.  It  took  away  nearly 
half  a  million  dollars  from  their  revenue,  but  did  not  increase  the 
price  of  their  product,  as  had  been  predicted,  inasmuch  as  the  prices 
paid  to  the  producer  of  hemp  sent  to  the  United  States  are  the  same 
as  those  paid  for  hemp  consigned  to  other  countries. 

It  seems  desirable  that  power  be  given  to  the  Commission  to 
make  reductions  in  the  duties  levied  on  imports  into  the  Islands 
without  the  necessity  of  waiting  for  congressional  action.  The 
Commission  has  frequently  made  this  recommendation,  and  there 
seems  little  reason  for  objecting  to  it.  The  question  would  be  dif- 
ferent if  the  Commission  asked  for  the  power  to  increase  the  rates 
at  discretion. 

The  Commission  has  also,  in  order  to  encourage  the  trade  be- 
tween the  Philippine  Islands  and  the  United  States,  repeatedly  asked 
that  goods  sent  from  the  Philippine  Islands  be  admitted  to  the 
United  States  free  of  duty.  The  present  duties  upon  sugar  and 
tobacco  are  so  heavy  that  the  Filipino  producers  have  practically  no 
opportunity  of  sending  their  goods  into  the  United  States.  Inasmuch 
as  these  interests  have  also  been  greatly  injured  by  the  ravages  of 
insurrection,  by  losses  of  animals  by  the  rinderpest,  and  in  other 
ways,  this  request  has  seemed  an  urgent  one.  Vigorous  opposition, 
however,  has  been  made  against  this  proposal  by  the  sugar  and 
tobacco  interests  in  the  United  States,  who  seem  needlessly  to  fear 
Philippine  competition,  and  so  far  this  protest  has  been  effective.  It 
is  probable  that  no  other  single  act  remains  to  be  taken  by  Congress 
which  would  have  so  good  a  moral  effect  upon  the  people  of  the 
Islands  as  to  permit  their  sugar  and  tobacco  to  enter  the  United 
States  free  of  duty.  These  conditions  obtain  now  for  Hawaii  and 
Porto  Rico,  and  it  seems  extremely  desirable  that  the  Philippines 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  377 

be  given  the  same  privileg-e.  The  Commission  is  now  advocating' 
a  provision  to  the  effect  that  all  goods  the  product  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  be  admitted  free  of  duty  into  the  United  States,  excepting 
sugar  and  tobacco,  and  that  on  these  there  be  levied  25  per  cent,  of 
the  Dingley  rates.  So  far,  however,  the  opposition  has  proved 
vigorous  enougli  to  prevent  this  concession.  At  present  duties  are 
levied  on  all  goods  at  75  per  cent,  of  the  Dingley  tariff  rates. 

As  to  the  monetary  system,  at  the  time  of  the  American  occu- 
pation there  were  in  common  circulation  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
Spanish  Filipino  pesos,  Mexican  dollars,  bank  notes  of  the  Spanish 
Filipino  Bank,  payable  in  these  coins,  and  a  small  amount  of  frac- 
tional silver  and  copper  coins. 

Spanish  and  Filipino  copper  coins  were  extremely  scarce. 
After  the  American  occupation  the  need  of  fractional  coins  was  met 
largely  by  the  importation  of  subsidiary  silver  coins  from  China  and 
of  copper  coins  from  the  Straits  Settlements,  Borneo,  and  elsewhere. 
The  standard  silver  coins  circulated  at  practically  their  bullion  value. 
No  discrimination  was  made  between  the  Spanish  Filipino  coins, 
which  were  strictly  limited  in  quantity  and  much  below  the  monetary 
needs  of  the  Islands,  and  the  Alexican  dollars,  although  the  Spanish- 
Filipino  coins  contained  from  8  to  12  per  cent,  less  silver  to  the  peso 
than  Mexican  dollars. 

The  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  the  silver  coins  as  compared 
with  the  American  money  brought  in  by  our  troops  and  government 
officials  led  to  great  disturbance  in  business,  especially  when,  owing 
to  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver  bullion,  the  rates  of  exchange  went 
from  two  Mexican  pesos  for  one  American  dollar  up  to  2.30,  2.40, 
and  even  as  high  as  2.70.  After  the  American  civil  government 
had  been  established  it  seemed  best  to  give  to  the  Islands  a  system 
which,  while  meeting  local  needs,  should  also  be  stable  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  money  of  the  United  States  and  of  other  gold-standard 
countries. 

In  consequence  a  new  system  was  introduced,  under  which  there 
is  a  Philippine  peso  maintained  at  $.50  American  currency,  and 
subsidiary  and  minor  coins  rif  silver,  nickel,  and  copper,  maintained 
as  fractional  parts  of  this  peso.  Naturally,  during  the  introduction 
of  the  new  peso,  there  was  scmuc  industrial  disturbance,  which  was 
greatlv  exaggeratctl  l)y  those  who  had  been  making  large  profits 
from  the  fluctuations  of  the  rates  of  exchange  between  the  silver 
currency  and   the  gold,   but   the   system   has  now   become  finnly 


378  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

established,  greatly  to  the  benefit  of  the  business  interests  of  the 
country. 

The  Filipino  people  have  been  inclined  to  be  a  somewhat  gay 
and  heedless  people,  as  are  those  of  most  countries  in  the  tropics, 
owing  to  the  ease  of  securing  the  needs  of  existence.  Moreover,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  usurers,  principally  Chinese,  are  numerous, 
and  that  there  are  few  means  of  encouraging  thrift,  very  little  in 
the  way  of  the  saving  of  money  has  been  accomplished,  although  to 
a  somewhat  surprising  degree  (more  than  80  per  cent.)  the  native 
Filipinos  are  themselves  the  owners  of  the  small  farms  which  they 
occupy  (peasant  proprietors). 

It  has  been  thought  for  some  years  by  high  officials  in  the 
Islands  that  some  means  should  be  furnished  the  people  for  investing 
safely  small  savings  where  they  would  be  easily  available.  A  Postal 
Savings  Bank  has  therefore  been  recommended,  and  lately  a  law  for 
the  inauguration  of  such  a  system  has  been  passed.  The  general 
provisions  of  the  law  are  as  follows : 

( 1 )  The  banks  are  divided  into  three  classes :  those  of  the 
first  and  second  may  receive  deposits  in  the  form  of  currency  and  of 
Postal  Savings  Bank  stamps ;  banks  of  the  third  class  receive  de- 
posits only  in  stamps.  Deposits  above  one  thousand  pesos  do  not 
bear  interest  except  in  the  case  of  charitable  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions, for  which  the  maximum  interest-bearing  deposit  is  two 
thousand  pesos. 

(2)  Postal  Savings  Bank  stamps  are  in  the  denominations  of 
five,  ten,  and  twenty  centavos.  Any  person  purchasing  these  stamps 
is  furnished,  free  of  expense,  appropriate  cards  with  spaces  bearing 
distinctive  marks  and  colors.  As  soon  as  these  stamp  cards  are 
filled  with  stamps  they  may  be  deposited  in  any  Postal  Savings 
Bank  as  if  they  were  money  to  the  amount  represented  by  the  face 
value  of  the  stamps. 

Such  stamps  received  for  deposit  are  canceled.  Until  canceled 
they  may  be  redeemed  at  face  value  in  postage  stamps.  All  em- 
ployees of  the  banks  and  all  those  handling  the  stamps,  canceled  and 
uncanceled,  are  held  responsible  for  them  to  the  same  extent  as  if 
they  were  insular  money. 

(3)  Any  person,  six  years  of  age  or  over,  residing  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  not  under  legal  disability,  may  open  an  account 
to  his  own  credit.  iVny  person  twenty-three  years  of  age  or  over,  or 
any  person  under  twenty-tliree  years  of  age  if  the  head  of  a  family, 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  ^79 

may  open  an  account  for  and  make  deposits  to  the  credit  of  any- 
minor  or  person  unable  to  manage  his  own  affairs.  But  no  person 
may  have  more  than  one  account  to  his  credit. 

(4)  Interest  at  2i  per  cent,  per  annum  will  be  allowed  on  all 
deposits.  If  the  earnings  of  any  fiscal  year  exceed  the  amount  neces- 
sary for  the  payment  of  the  interest  and  the  cost  of  administration, 
this  surplus  will  be  set  aside  as  a  Postal  Savings  Bank  reserve  fund, 
which  will  be  invested  and  will  accumulate  until  it  shall  equal  5  per 
cent,  of  the  interest-bearing  deposits.  Any  earnings  beyond  this 
reserve  are  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  rate  of 
interest. 

(5)  All  Postal  Savings  Bank  funds  are  to  be  kept  in  a 
separate  trust  fund  by  the  Insular  Treasurer.  The  investments  of 
these  funds  will  be  in  charge  of  a  special  board  composed  of  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police,  the  Secretary  of  Finance  and 
Justice,  the  Director  of  Posts,  and  the  Insular  Treasurer,  and  a  busi- 
ness man  appointed  by  the  Governor-General.  To  insure  safetv, 
special  limitations  are  placed  on  the  nature  of  securities  in  which 
these  funds  may  be  invested.  All  deposits  are  free  from  taxation 
of  all  kinds  in  the  Islands. 

It  is  expected  that  these  Postal  Banks,  if  properly  encouraged 
through  all  official  channels,  such  as  the  provincial  officials,  munici- 
pal officials,  school  teachers,  etc.,  will  do  much  to  encourage  thrift 
among  the  Filipino  people. 

There  has  been  great  suffering  in  tlie  Islands  for  the  last  three 
or  four  years,  especially  among  the  agricultural  population.  This 
distress  has  been  due  in  part  to  the  ravages  of  war  and  the  resulting 
losses,  in  part  to  the  loss  of  the  draft  animals  (the  carabaos)  from 
the  cattle  plague  (the  riiidcrj^cst).  and  in  part  to  a  plague  of  locusts. 
which  devastated  the  crops  in  many  sections  of  the  Islands:  finally, 
also,  to  the  natural  desolation  arising  from  the  disturbed  conditions 
after  the  war.  These  social  conditions  seem  already  decidedly  im- 
proved. Partly  through  their  own  exertions,  partly  through  favor- 
able actions  of  the  military  and  civil  otiicials.  and  partly  through 
the  relief  fund  of  $3,000,000  V(^tcd  as  a  gift  to  the  h'ilipinos  by  Con- 
gress, the  farmers  have  been  alile  to  cultivate  much  more  land,  and 
even,  in  manv  cases,  to  get  their  farms  into  good  condition.  The 
chief  drawiiack  has  been  tlic  lack  of  carabaos:  but  the  rinderpest  is 
now  held  well  in  clicck  and  the  Commission  thinks  that,  within  a 
year  or  two,  there  will  be  a  sufficient  supply  for  ;dl  needed  purposes. 


380  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

Through  the  schools,  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  with  its  ex- 
periment stations,  the  Forestry  Bureau,  and  otherwise,  the  Govern- 
ment has  also  attempted  to  give  assistance  in  the  form  of  instruction 
and  information  which  might  prove  helpful.  In  spite  of  all  the 
assistance,  there  is  still  great  need  of  ready  capital  for  the  develop- 
ment of  agriculture,  and  particularly  for  the  carrying  on  of  current 
work. 

The  usurers  have  found  here  a  fertile  field,  and  in  very  many 
cases  money  has  been  borrowed  upon  the  security  of  land  or  of  crops 
at  exorbitant  rates  of  interest,  varying  from  2  per  cent,  to  as  high  as 
10  per  cent,  per  month.  In  order  to  afford  relief  from  these  condi- 
tions the  Philippine  Government  has  given  very  careful  attention 
to  the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  bank,  the  business  of  which 
will  be  to  make  loans  to  the  agriculturists  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
upon  the  security  of  real  estate,  growing  crops,  or  other  security 
duly  authorized,  so  that  they  may  the  more  easily  buy  farm  im- 
plements and  make  such  other  improvements  as  seem  essential. 

It  has  seemed  best  to  the  Commission  to  recommend  granting 
the  concession  to  a  private  corporation  which  should  be  under  im- 
mediate supervision  of  the  Government,  subject  not  merely  to  the 
law,  but  also  to  careful  inspection,  and  even  to  participation  in  the 
management  by  government  inspectors.  The  plan  proposed  pro- 
vides that  for  a  period  of  twenty-five  years  the  Government  shall 
guarantee  a  dividend  of  4  per  cent,  on  the  par  value  of  the  bank's 
duly  authorized  cash  paid  up  capital  stock.  A  very  careful  study  of 
agricultural  bank  systems  in  Europe,  India,  Australia,  and  more 
especially  in  Egypt,  has  been  made  for  the  Philippine  Government 
by  ]\Ir.  Kemmerer,  the  former  chief  of  the  Division  of  the  Currency 
in  the  Philippines,  and  a  bill  was  introduced  into  Congress  last  ses- 
sion to  permit  the  Government  to  assume  tlie  guarantee  recom- 
mended. So  far  the  bill  has  failed  of  passage ;  but  the  experience  of 
other  countries  along  similar  lines  indicates  that  under  proper  safe- 
guards the  Government  would  be  taking  ver}'  little  risk  by  such 
guarantee,  and  the  presumption  is  that  the  bill  will  pass  and  the  bank 
be  established  in  the  not  distant  future. 

It  scarcely  would  be  advisable  to  attempt  an  enumeration  of 
all  the  pubHc  work  undertaken  by  the  United  States  in  the  Philippine 
Islands,  or  by  the  Philippine  Government  itself,  for  tlic  benefit  of 
the  Filipinos,  but  some  of  the  most  important  should  be  enumerated. 

The  United   States   Government  has  established  at  different 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  381 

places  in  the  Islands  permanent  camps  for  occupation  by  American 
troops  stationed  in  the  Islands.  While  these  camps  are,  of  course, 
intended  for  American  soldiers,  the  building-  of  the  camps  them- 
selves and  the  constant  expenditures  made  by  the  United  States 
Government  for  the  support  of  its  soldiers  are  matters  of  great 
economic  importance  to  trade  and  industry  in  the  Philippines. 

The  same  statement  may  be  made  with  substantially  equal 
emphasis  with  reference  to  the  naval  base  which  the  Government  has 
established,  and  which  will  bring-  to  the  Islands  the  benefit  coming 
from  the  repair  and  refitting  of  our  ships  of  war  of  various  kinds, 
and  our  other  governmental  vessels,  while  the  additional  expenditure 
made  for  the  supplying  of  the  ships  and  of  the  sailors  stationed  on 
duty  at  iManila  or  elsewhere  in  the  Islands  is  also  an  item  of  con- 
siderable economic  importance. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  noteworthy  of  the  improve- 
ments undertaken  by  the  Filii:)ino  Government  is  the  improvement  of 
the  harbor  of  IManila.  Generally  speaking,  in  the  Far  East,  not- 
withstanding the  good  harbors,  there  arc  very  poor  facilities  for  the 
loading  and  unloading  of  ships.  At  Batavia,  in  Java,  the  Dutch 
government  has  a  well-built  and  well-equipped  dock  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  Singapore,  to  a  somewhat  less  degree,  and  in  Yokohama 
similar  provisions  are  found,  but  generally  speaking,  throughout 
the  East  ships  must  be  loaded  and  unloaded  by  lighters,  while  passen- 
gers even  have  to  be  transferred  from  the  ships  to  the  shore  by 
launches  or  rowboats. 

But  the  Philippine  Government  decided  to  expend  upon  harbor 
improvements  in  Manila  some  $4,000,000,  and  less  sums  at  two  or 
three  other  important  ports.  Piers  for  tlie  accommodation  of  com- 
merce in  tlic  new  harl)or  at  Manila  are  already  arranged  for,  and 
they  should  be  completed  within  aliout  another  year.  These  im- 
provements will  doubtless  call  for  the  construction  of  a  new  custom 
house,  for  storage  liouscs,  and  otiier  similar  inipnn-ements.  When 
tliese  works  are  coiTi])]cted,  Manila  will  have  the  best  arranged 
harbor  in  the  Orient,  while  inij)ro\-cinents  along  similar  lines  now 
under  wav  in  Iloilo  and  C'ebi'i  will  likewise  greatly  facilitate  ship- 
ping at  these  ports,  both  of  which  are  very  important  in  the  com- 
merce of  the  Islands. 

Besides  the  exjicnditnrcs  mentioned  above,  the  insular  treasury 
pays  out  large  sums  each  year  for  the  coast  and  geodetic  survev.  for 
quarantine  services,  for  the  construction  of  lighthouses  and  light- 


382  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

house  service.  A  portion  of  the  expense  of  the  coast  and  geodetic 
survey  is  borne  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  but  all 
such  expenditures  are  really  for  the  benefit  of  the  commerce  of  the 
world,  and  the  Philippine  Commission  has  suggested  that  all  these 
services  be  paid  for  out  of  the  United  States  treasury,  and  that  the 
coast  and  geodetic  survey  service  be  largely  increased  in  order  that 
the  work  may  be  promptly  done. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1905,  for  these  three  services  mentioned, 
no  less  than  $496,039.90  was  expended,  a  very  considerable  burden 
for  the  Philippine  treasury  when  it  is  considered  that  the  benefit  goes 
quite  largely  to  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  to  foreign 
countries. 

A  noteworthy  improvement  of  great  importance  to  the  sanita- 
tion of  the  capital  of  the  Islands  is  the  installation  of  a  new  water 
supply  and  sewerage  system  for  the  city  of  Manila.  Congress 
authorized  the  Philippine  Commission  to  sell  bonds  to  the  face 
value  of  $1,000,000  for  this  purpose.  The  bonds  sold  were  10-30 
bonds,  and  selling  at  a  premium  which  realized  a  profit  of  $95,625, 
they  represent  a  net  cost  to  the  Government  of  approximately  only  3 
per  cent.  The  bonds  are  exempt  from  all  taxation  by  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  or  of  any  State  or  territorial  division  thereof, 
and  of  either  the  insular,  provincial,  or  municipal  governments  of 
the  Philippine  Islands.  By  order  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States  they  are  also  available  for  deposit  by  national 
banks  as  security  for  deposits  of  government  funds.  Plans  for  the 
inauguration  of  the  new  system  in  Manila  are  well  under  way,  and 
when  completed  it  should  make  the  city  practically  safe  in  most  par- 
ticulars against  the  incursion  of  any  of  the  great  epidemics. 

The  Government  has  also  taken  steps  to  make  Manila  a  credit- 
able city  from  the  artistic  point  of  view.  The  old  city  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  the  mediaeval  type,  which,  though  of  course 
no  longer  of  any  value  as  a  means  of  defense,  is  still  a  very  pic- 
turesque historic  relic,  surrounded  as  it  is  by  a  moat,  and,  on  the 
side  farthest  from  the  harbor  and  river,  by  a  wide  stretch  of  unoccu- 
])ie(l  land.  Under  the  advice  of  one  of  the  most  noted  landscape 
architect?  of  the  United  States  and  the  direction  of  the  Government 
engineers  certain  portions  of  the  wall  which  are  distinctively  ob- 
structive to  commerce  have  been  removed,  and  some  of  the  gates 
which  were  too  narrow  for  modern  traftic  have  been  widened:  but 
the  most  important  and  most  striking  parts  of  the  old  walls  have 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  383 

been  retained  in  all  of  their  picturesque  beauty,  while  the  moats  now 
filled  in  and  the  land  lyin^  beyond,  with  all  unhealthful  and  dis- 
agreeable features  removed,  have  been  been  made  into  beautiful 
parks  and  driveways.  Upon  these  in  the  future  will  doubtless  be 
placed  some  of  the  more  important  government  buildings,  but  most 
of  them  will  remain  permanently  as  a  healthful  and  beautiful  prom- 
enade and  pleasure  ground  for  the  inhabitants  of  Manila.  In  sim- 
ilar fashion  some  wide  stretches  of  the  shallow  waters  of  the  bay 
are  being  recovered  by  filling  in  so  as  to  give  additional  water-front 
facilities  for  government  storehouses,  wharves,  etc.  Some  of  the 
important  streets  are  being  widened,  and  the  harbor  itself  is  being 
greatly  improved  by  the  filling  in  of  some  rather  unsightly  shoals 
near  the  shore. 

In  a  similar  spirit  of  practical  foresight  the  Government  has 
been  undertaking  as  far  as  possible  the  improvement  of  the  road 
system  throughout  the  Islands,  and  has  begun  the  establishment  of 
street  railways  and  railway  systems.  As. yet,  although  many  fair 
roads  were  made  by  the  military  during  their  occupation  of  some 
parts  of  the  Islands,  comparatively  little  has  been  done  toward  the 
establishment  of  a  general  road  system.  The  matter  has,  however, 
been  under  serious  consideration,  and,  in  certain  localities,  particu- 
larly in  the  neighborhood  of  the  army  posts,  a  good  deal  has  been 
done.  It  is  expected,  however,  to  make  provision  for  a  fairly  com- 
prehensive road  system  in  the  different  parts  of  the  Islands  to  be 
carried  forward  by  the  provinces  and  municipalities,  under  intelli- 
gent direction,  as  fast  as  this  can  be  done  without  too  heavily  bur- 
dening the  Filipinos  by  the  imposition  (^f  unusual  taxes.  In  some 
instances  the  Government  has  found  it  possil^le  to  lend  to  provinces 
funds  for  the  construction  of  some  of  tb.e  roads  nK\^t  needed  to  open 
up  rich  lands  so  that  the  hemp  and  other  i)ro(lucts  may  reach  tide 
water.  Tlie  Insular  Go\'cniment  has  also  in  such  cases  sometimes 
provided  the  labor  and  r.'itions  of  ])risoncrs  to  tlic  amount  of  their 
cost  in  ])ris()n.  and  liavc  lent  witlmnt  cliarge  the  tools  and  equip- 
ment whicli  had  been  used  by  tlie  Insular  Government  on  other 
roads,  but  which  for  the  time  lacing  v/erc  not  needed.  The  pro- 
vincial government  paid  tlic  cost  in  excess  of  prison  cost,  that  is, 
superintendence,  the  cost  of  maintenance  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
prison,  and  the  purchase  (^f  materials.  A\'ith  care,  in  spite  of  some 
attempts  at  insubordination  and,  for  a  time,  of  sickness,  this  plan 
has    worked   admirably.      A    medical    inspection   has   removed   all 


384.  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

danger  from  spread  of  disease,  and  care  has  been  taken  to  prevent 
any  outbreak.  Similar  arrangements  for  prisoners  have  been  made 
at  times  with  representatives  of  the  United  States  Government  in 
breaking  rock  for  the  construction  of  mihtary  roads  at  the  army  out- 
posts and  elsewhere. 

After  overcoming  the  very  greatest  engineering  obstacles,  as 
well  as  serious  difficulties  in  the  securing  of  proper  labor,  the  road 
from  the  terminus  of  the  railway  at  Dagupan  to  Baguio  was  com- 
pleted in  1905.  Baguio  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Benguet, 
and  is  the  place  which  has  been  selected  by  the  Government  for  a 
hospital  and  for  a  summer  residence  for  many  of  the  government 
officials  at  the  time  when  the  heat  in  Manila  is  such  that  it  is  trouble- 
some for  Americans  to  remain  there  engaged  in  taxing  labor.  The 
situation  is  said  to  be  admirable  for  the  purpose,  and  has  been  used 
ever  since  the  American  occupation — as,  indeed,  had  been  planned 
by  the  Spaniards — as  a  place  for  recuperation  for  invalids  and  for 
those  needing  temporary  rest.  The  total  cost  of  the  road  has  been 
high,  something  over  $73,000  a  mile,  but  the  road  had  of  necessity 
to  be  carried  through  several  very  difficult  mountain  sections,  which 
naturally  increased  the  cost  very  decidedly.  It  is  expected  that,  in 
the  not  distant  future,  the  reservation  will  be  developed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  it  worthy  of  a  summer  capital  for  the  Islands,  and 
that  the  change  from  Manila  to  this  mountainous  region  for  a  period 
of  two  or  three  months  during  the  year  will  be  so  beneficial  as  to  in- 
crease very  decidedly  the  efficiency  of  the  officials  upon  whom  rest 
the  greatest  responsibilities.  The  question  has  often  been  raised 
whether  the  Government  has  been  justified  in  incurring  so  great 
expense  to  provide  a  "  summer  capital  "  and  a  place  for  recuperation. 
The  final  answer  would  seem  to  depend  upon  the  view  one  takes  of 
tlie  necessity  of  governing  the  Philippines  by  capable  Americans; 
but  possibly,  while  the  burdens  of  a  difficult  beginning  are  resting 
heavily  on  the  country,  this  work  might  have  been  postponed. 
Doubtless  the  expense  has  been  far  greater  than  the  first  estimates, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing  trustworthy  data  for  those 
estimates. 

There  has  been  something  of  an  extension  of  the  short  railway 
system  now  in  the  Islands,  but  plans  have  also  been  made  for  the 
opening  up  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  Islands  which  are  sufficiently 
well  settled  to  justify  the  building  of  a  somewhat  extensive  general 
system.     Government  engineers  have  suggested  the  outline  of  this 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  385 

system,  and  during  the  year  1905  plans  were  prepared  and  advertise- 
ments issued  in  Manila  and  Washington  for  the  construction  of 
something  more  than  eleven  thousand  miles  of  railway.  Franchises 
were  afterward  granted  to  one  company  for  building  some  295 
miles  of  railroads  in  the  islands  of  Negros,  Cebii,  and  Panay,  and 
to  another  for  some  430  miles  in  Luzon.  Of  course,  the  exact 
location  must  be  determined  by  the  survey  of  the  railway  engineers, 
which  has  already  been  begun  for  the  first  lines  mentioned.  The 
railroads  in  all  cases  will  be  so  planned  as  to  reach  deep 
water  at  a  place  where  there  is  a  protected  harbor.  According  to 
the  plans  already  drawn,  when  they  are  finished  64  per  cent,  will  be 
in  the  great  Island  of  Luzon,  and  36  per  cent,  in  the  Visayan  Islands. 
The  Island  of  Mindanao  has  not  yet  been  included  in  the  plans 
because  of  its  sparse  population  and  also  because  it  has  not  yet 
developed  its  river  transportation  facilities;  moreover  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Island  are  not  enough  accustomed  to  civilized  life  and 
American  control  to  make  it  profitable  as  yet  to  take  up  such  a  plan. 
It  seems  likely,  however,  that  this  can  be  done  before  many  years 
have  passed.  Under  the  plans  proposed,  the  railroads  will  be  built 
by  private  corporations  and  the  4  per  cent,  interest  on  the  bonds  will 
be  guaranteed  by  the  Philippine  Government  for  a  period  of  thirty 
years  for  some  of  the  lines.  It  seems  probable  that  the  building 
of  these  railroads  will  do  very  much  toward  developing  the  in- 
dustrial resources  of  the  Islands,  and  it  is  likely  that  by  the  time 
these  are  completed  others  will  be  enough  in  demand  so  that  there 
will  be  little  if  any  risk  in  building  them  without  a  government 
guarantee.  Indeed,  the  government  guarantee  is  not  likely  to  be 
called  for  in  the  present  instance,  if  the  estimates  of  the  engineers 
are  sound. 

The  city  of  ]Manila  has  been  already  provided  with  a  fairly 
comprehensive  and  thoroughly  efficient  system  of  electric  street  rail- 
ways constructed  and  operated  by  an  American  company.  Until 
the  completion  of  this  road  there  had  been  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
going  from  one  section  to  another  of  this  really  great  city;  and  for 
persons  who  had  to  jiass  frequently  from  one  part  to  another  it  was 
necessar}^  to  keep  a  carriage.  Practically  all  of  the  government 
officials  of  the  higher  class  found  it  very  desirable  if  not  essential 
to  live  at  some  distance  from  their  offices,  and  the  cost  of  keeping 
horses  was  such  as  to  consume  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
salaries.     The  completion  of  the  street  railway  systems  will,  beyond 


^86  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

any  doubt,  lessen  the  somewhat  exorbitant  rents  which  it  has  been 
necessary  to  pay  heretofore,  and  will  encourage  the  building  up  of 
much  more  healthful  and  comfortable  dwellings  in  some  of  the 
suburbs. 

It  is  interesting  and  important  to  note  that  as  the  various  enter- 
prises in  the  direction  of  public  works  are  taken  up  from  year  to 
year  and  the  demand  for  labor  increases,  the  native  Filipinos  seem 
to  be  acquiring  steadily,  under  the  supervision  of  tactful  superin- 
tendents, habits  of  diligence,  skill,  and  strength  better  than  was  at 
first  anticipated.  Of  course,  in  building  some  of  th^e  roads  and  in 
some  of  the  other  engineering  enterprises,  it  was  very  difficult  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  to  secure  labor  that  was  at  all  satis- 
factory. Even  yet  the  difficulty  has  by  no  means  been  overcome, 
but  a  very  marked  improvement  is  noticeable,  and  it  seems  at  the 
present  time  that  the  Filipinos  will  develop  into  fairly  satisfactory 
laborers  for  all  kinds  of  both  unskilled  and  skilled  labor. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  various  lines  of  improve- 
ment in  connection  with  public  work.  It  is  not  advisable  to  go  into 
further  detail,  but  one  may  note  that  careful  investigation  has  been 
made  for  the  improvement  of  the  rivers  and  for  their  control  in  times 
of  flood,  for  the  improvement  of  harbors  in  the  more  important 
places  throughout  the  Islands,  for  the  building  of  some  canals  which 
will  serve  the  purpose  of  transportation,  and  for  engineering  works 
in  many  different  places. 

On  account  of  the  danger  of  epidemics,  special  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  question  of  the  water  supply,  and  in  a  number  of 
instances  artesian  wells  have  been  provided  where  it  was  not  possible 
to  get  a  satisfactory  supply  otherwise. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  American  occupation  careful  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  preservation  and  control  of  forests.  At 
the  time  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  there  was  a  noteworthy  exhibit 
of  Philippine  forest  products  which  received  several  premiums  and 
medals.  The  Government  owns  the  largest  part  of  the  forests  of  the 
Islands,  and  although  there  have  been  many  difficulties  to  overcome, 
it  has  been  the  puq^ose  to  manage  them  with  reference  to  securing 
a  reasonable  use  of  the  timber  while  preserving  the  forests  them- 
selves. The  plan  generally  followed  is  to  give  a  license  to  private 
individuals  to  cut  off  a  certain  amount  of  timber  in  the  different 
localities.  The  timber  must  be  cut  under  special  laws  laid  down  and 
enforced  by  the  forestry  service  so  as  to  protect  the  forests  and  at 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  387 

the  same  time  secure  a  considerable  revenue.  This  revenue  amounted 
to  $346,015.69  for  the  fiscal  year  1905. 

In  addition  to  the  administration  of  the  forests,  there 
has  been  establislied  a  timber-testing-  laboratory  in  order  to 
learn  the  qualities  of  the  various  kinds  of  timber  for  commercial 
use.  Besides  this,  various  surveys  of  the  forests  in  different  parts 
of  the  Islands  have  been  made  in  order  to  enable  the  Government  to 
know  something  of  the  extent  and  quality  of  its  products.  Also 
efforts  have  been  made  to  establish  certain  stations  where  nurseries 
for  the  most  valuable  trees  could  be  maintained  and  the  equipment 
made  ready  for  scientific  forest  administration. 

For  the  development  of  the  Philippines  in  the  future  very  much 
depends  upon  the  principle  of  government  followed  and  the  extent 
to  which  the  individual  Filipinos  will  show  themselves  capable  of 
self-government ;  so  that  it  seems  important  to  note  as  briefly  as 
may  be  the  existing  situation  in  that  regard,  and  also  very  briefly 
the  characteristics  of  the  people  as  they  have  been  judged  by  those 
best  fitted  by  training  and  observation  to  make  such  a  judgment.  In 
Chapter  XVIII.  a  bare  outline  of  the  government  was  given.  We 
may,  perhaps,  supplement  that  in  order  to  show  more  completely  the 
present  conditions. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission consists  of  the  Governor-General,  an  American,  four 
American  commissioners  and  three  Filipino  commissioners,  all  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  tb.e  United  States.  The  heads  of  the 
various  executive  departments  are  the  American  commissioners,  the 
Filipino  representatives  of  the  Commission  not  having  charge  of 
administrati\'e  dcj^artments.  'I'he  Americans  have  thus  a  majority  in 
the  Commission  for  the  passage  of  legislative  acts.  It  should  not  be 
supposed,  however,  that  there  is  any  conflict  of  interests  which  ap- 
pears in  the  meetings.  It  is  tlie  universal  testimony  of  those  who 
have  had  any  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  measures  are  discussed 
and  voted  up<;in  in  the  CommissiiMi  tliat  without  exception  all  the 
members  of  the  Commission  keep  ])rimarily  in  mind  the  instructions 
of  the  home  go\crnmcnt  tliat  the  interests  of  the  Filipino  people  are 
to  be  kept  in  the  foreground.  In  tlie  discussions  the  Filipino  mem- 
bers fre(|uently  take  an  active  part,  and  on  c[ucstions  where  their 
special  knowledge  of  the  pe(^ple  and  tlicir  prejudices  would  give  their 
opinions  particular  value,  their  opim'ons  are  given  great  weight. 

Furthermore,  it  has  been  the  policy  of  the  Commission  from  the 


388  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

beginning  to  afford  to  the  .people  the  opportunity  of  discussing  the 
most  important  measures  before  they  are  finally  passed.  After  a 
bill  has  been  read  and  considered  in  executive  session  by  the  Com- 
mission, it  is  printed  in  Spanish  and  English  and  furnished  for  pub- 
lication in  the  daily  newspapers  of  Manila,  together  with  an 
announcement  of  the  day  when  the  bill  will  be  discussed  in  open 
session.  At  such  session  the  bill  is  read,  and  any  person  present 
desiring  to  be  heard  upon  it,  if  he  has  made  application  for  such  per- 
mission, may  speak  and  criticise  the  proposed  measure  as  he  desires. 
The  members  of  the  Commission  themselves  take  part  in  the  discus- 
sions in  the  way  of  answering  objections,  asking  questions,  making 
suggestions,  etc.  The  bill,  thus,  is  not  put  upon  its  final  passage 
until  after  the  people  have  had  an  opportunity  of  discussing  the 
measure  in  person,  as  well  as  through  their  representatives.  Of 
course,  it  is  neither  practicable  nor  desirable  that  the  less  important 
routine  measures  be  so  discussed;  but  this  plan  has  been  followed 
from  the  beginning  with  reference  to  practically  all  the  important 
measures,  especially  those  having  a  political  bearing  or  those  involv- 
ing important  industrial  interests. 

In  the  establishment  of  the  provincial  governments  the  Com- 
mission similarly,  before  putting  the  organization  act  into  effect, 
visited  the  provinces  concerned,  and  heard  the  opinions  of  the 
people  themselves. 

Besides  this,  various  measures  have  been  taken  to  find  out  the 
opinions  of  the  people  and  to  enable  them,  even  in  this  indirect  way, 
to  take  from  the  beginning  an  active  part  in  the  government,  and 
by  these  various  experiences  the  Commission  has  been  able  to  judge 
somewhat  the  capacity  for  such  work  possessed  by  a  good  many 
influential  Filipinos. 

To  speak  frankly,  on  the  autnonty  of  various  people  not 
connected  with  the  Commission  who  have  listened  to  the  public 
discussions,  the  type  of  argument  of  the  educated  Filipinos  on 
such  measures  is  not  such  as  to  convince  the  conservative  man  that 
they  have  a  very  high  capacity  for  self-government.  Orators  of 
skill  in  appealing  to  feeling,  many  of  them,  doubtless,  are;  but  they 
often  do  not  seem  to  see  the  bearings  of  public  measures  in  their 
true  proportions,  and  the  suggestions  which  they  make  are  fre- 
quently entirely  impracticable.  3.Ioreover,  as  is  well  known,  in  a 
popular  government  the  spirit  of  concession  must  be  encouraged;  if 
one  cannot  get  all  that  he  wishes,  he  should  be  ready  to  satisfy  him- 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  389 

self  with  taking-  cheerfully  such  measures  as  are  practical  and  with 
waiting  for  further  developments  and  experience  before  his  desires 
are  all  gratified.  One  must  also  be  tolerant  of  opposition  and  ready 
to  see  all  sides  of  a  question.  This  spirit  of  patient  concession  so 
characteristic  of  a  successful  self-governing  people,  such  as  the 
English,  the  Canadians,  the  Americans,  is  not  apparent  in  large 
measure  among  the  Filipinos. 

In  the  Supreme  Court  also,  as  has  been  before  suggested,  three 
out  of  the  seven  members,  including  the  chief  justice,  are  native 
Filipinos.  They  also  have  a  strong  representation  in  the  Courts  of 
First  Instance,  while  the  justices  of  the  peace  are  all  Filipinos. 

Moreover,  provided  conditions  of  peace  and  good  order  con- 
tinue in  the  Islands,  as  is  to  be  expected,  the  Commission,  under  the 
direction  of  the  President,  will  call  a  general  election  for  the  choice 
of  delegates  to  the  popular  Assembly  of  the  people  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  on  March  27,  1907.  In  this  Assembly  the  Moros,  not  yet 
pacified,  and  other  non-Christian  tribes,  will  not  be  represented. 
This  Assembly,  consisting  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  members, 
will  be  apportioned  as  nearly  as  is  ])racticable  according  to  popula- 
tion, but  each  of  the  seventeen  Christianized  provinces  will  have  at 
least  one  member.  The  qualifications  of  electors  will  be  the  same  as 
is  now  provided  for  municipal  elections.  The  members  will  hold 
office  for  two  years.  The  Legislature,  of  which  this  Assembly  is  to 
constitute  a  lower  house,  the  upper  house  to  consist  of  the  present 
Commission,  will  hold  annual  sessions,  and  extra  sessions  may  be 
called  by  the  Governor-General.  The  Assembly  will  choose  its 
speaker  and  other  officers,  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings, 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and  with  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  expel  a  member.  So  far  as  ordinary  legislative 
power  is  concerned,  it  is  coordinate  witli  that  of  the  Commission.  In 
case,  however,  there  slionld  be  a  failure  to  pass  an  appropriation 
bill  necessary  for  the  conducting  of  the  government,  provision  is 
made  that  an  amount  necessary  for  the  suppi^rt  of  the  government, 
equal  to  the  sums  ajipn^priated  in  the  last  appropriation  bills  for 
such  purposes,  shall  be  deemed  tn  be  appropriated,  and  the  treasurer 
of  the  Islands  shall  act  accordingly. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  opening  of  this  Assembly  is  awaited 
with  serious  concern  by  many  Americans  familiar  with  the  condi- 
tions in  the  Islands.  !Mnch  debate,  much  oratory  is  expected,  and 
there  is  much  doubt  as  to  the  conseiwative  wisdom  of  the  Assembly 


390  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

in  its  actions.  Its  establishment  will  mark  a  most  important  step 
toward  self-government.  With  a  large  amount  of  constructive 
legislation  already  on  the  statute  books,  and  with  the  experienced 
Commission  as  an  upper  house,  there  seems  reason  to  believe  that 
the  experiment  will,  on  the  whole,  possibly  after  some  delay,  prove 
a  success. 

In  the  constitution  of  the  Assembly  provision  is  also  made  for 
the  election,  by  the  two  houses  of  the  Legislature  acting  separately, 
of  two  representatives  to  the  United  States.  These  will  not  be 
members  of  Congress,  but  will  represent  the  island  Government  be- 
fore the  United  States  executive  departments,  and  may  be  consulted 
generally  by  United  States  officials  on  all  matters  concerning  the 
Philippines. 

Speaking  generally,  in  the  provincial  government  the  governor 
is  chosen  by  a  college  made  up  of  the  members  of  the  municipal 
councils  in  the  province.  The  majority  of  those  present  entitled 
to  vote  is  required  for  election,  and  the  ballot  is  secret.  The  result 
of  the  election  is  certified  to  the  Governor-General,  who  confirms  it, 
unless  he  finds  that  it  was  conducted  unfairly,  that  the  person  chosen 
is  ineligible,  or  that  his  loyalty  is  doubtful  If  the  Governor-General 
refuses  to  confirm  an  election  on  these  grounds  a  new  one  may  be 
held.  If  for  a  similar  reason  this  second  election  cannot  be  con- 
firmed, the  Governor-General  may  appoint  the  provincial  governor 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Commission. 

Acting  with  the  governor  of  the  province  is  a  provincial  board, 
consisting  of  the  provincial  treasurer,  and,  until  lately,  of  the  super- 
visor of  the  province,  both  of  whom  were  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor-General with  the  consent  of  the  Commission.  Generally 
speaking,  heretofore,  those  two  officials  have  been  Americans;  the 
elected  governor  has  generally  been  a  Filipino.  In  several  instances 
it  has  been  found  advisable  to  consolidate  the  offices  of  supervisor 
and  treasurer,  thus  effecting  a  saving.  In  those  cases  the  district 
superintendent  of  schools  has  been  added  to  the  provincial  board. 
The  provincial  secretary  and  the  fiscal  (prosecuting  attorney), 
usually  Filipinos,  are  also  important  provincial  ofiicials,  but  not 
members  of  the  provincial  board. 

The  governor  is  expected  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  work  of 
his  prcjvince.  Fle  is  to  see  that  the  laws  are  executed,  and  that  the 
officers  perform  their  duties.  He  must  attend  the  Court  of  First 
Instance,  and  is  the  officer  to  execute  its  orders.     He  controls  the 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  391 

local  constabulary  and  police  of  the  municipalities  under  certain 
general  restrictions.  He  is  expected  to  visit  every  municipality  at 
least  every  six  months,  to  hear  complaints  against  officials,  and  to 
supervise  their  work;  he  may  even,  for  sufficient  reason,  suspend 
any  official,  although  such  an  act  he  must  immediately  report  to  the 
Commission.  He  also  employs  the  deputies  or  assistants  necessary 
for  the  performance  of  his  duties,  and  fixes  their  salaries,  subject, 
however,  to  the  provincial  board,  and  eventually  to  the  insular 
treasurer. 

The  provincial  treasurer  and  supervisor,  appointive  officers, 
have  also  important  duties.  They  are  both  under  the  rigid  super- 
vision of  the  central  government,  and,  of  course,  the  governor  also 
is  ultimately  under  the  control  of  the  Commission,  through  its  power 
of  removal  in  case  of  emergency.  Some  of  the  less  civilized  prov- 
inces, together  with  the  Moro  provinces,  have  governments  in  which 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  self-government  on  the 
part  of  the  people,  all  of  the  officials,  including  the  governor,  being 
appointive.  It  is  generally  considered  that  this  form  of  provincial 
government  is  merely  a  modification  of  the  general  act  to  meet 
local  conditions,  and  that  as  the  inhabitants  become  more  enlight- 
ened or  more  orderly  a  greater  degree  of  self-government  will  be 
granted  to  them  until  they  are  given  a  government  substantially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  more  developed  provinces. 

Popular  government  appears  most  clearly  in  connection  with 
the  government  of  municipalities.  The  size  of  the  municipality 
determines  the  number  of  menibers  in  tlie  councils,  which  varies 
from  eight  to  eighteen.  Bolli  the  mayors  {prcsidcntc)  of  the 
municipalities  and  tlie  nicmbers  of  the  councils  are  elective.  To 
hold  any  of  these  oiVices  the  person  must  be  a  duly  qualified  voter, 
not  less  tlian  tv^entv-src  years  qA  age.  who  has  had  a  local  residence 
in  the  municipality  for  at  least  (Mic  year,  and  who  is  able  to  read  and 
write  either  tlie  S])aiii-h  or  lM\L;!ish  language  or  the  local  native 
language.  Soldiers  in  active  ser\ice  and  people  receiving  salaries 
from  either  provincial  or  otlier  go\  ornmental  funds,  and  contractors 
for  public  works  are  excluded  from  holding  public  office. 

The  mavor  has  many  responsibilities  besides  those  which 
usnallv  fall  to  a  chief  exccutuc.  lie  presides  o\-er  the  municipal 
council,  with  a  casting  \'ote;  he  must  a.pprove  of  the  ordinances 
before  thev  become  eiTecti\e.  altlKnigli  his  veto  may  be  overruled 
by  a  t\vi)-thir(ls  vote  of  the  couticil.     He  appoints,  with  the  approval 


392  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

of  the  council,  all  non-elective  officers  and  employees,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  treasurer;  and  he  may  suspend  for  cause  any  of 
these  officers  for  ten  days,  or  even  dismiss  them  with  the  consent  of 
the  council.  In  certain  minor  cases,  involving  the  breaking  of  the 
municipal  ordinances,  he  acts  as  magistrate,  and  he  also  has  the 
general  oversight  of  elections. 

He  likewise  makes  an  annual  report  setting  forth  the  work  of 
his  office  and  making  recommendations.  This  report  is  sent  to  the 
governor  of  the  province.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  mayor 
of  the  municipality  is  authorized  to  use  as  the  symbol  of  his  office 
"  a  cylindrical  cane  with  a  gold  head,  gold  ferule,  and  silver  cord 
and  tassel." 

The  treasurer  of  the  municipality  is  appointed  by  the  provincial 
treasurer,  with  the  approval  of  the  provincial  board. 

The  members  of  the  council  serve  without  pay,  but  the  mayor, 
secretary,  and  treasurer  are  paid  small  salaries,  to  be  fixed  by  the 
council  with  a  maximum  limit  fixed  by  law,  1200  pesos  in  the  case  of 
the  mayor  for  the  most  important  municipalities. 

The  members  of  the  municipal  councils  are  elected  on  a  general 
ticket.  The  majority  constitute  a  quorum;  the  majority  vote  of  all 
members  is  required  for  the  passage  of  any  ordinance.  The  duties 
of  the  council,  which  are  similar  to  those  of  municipal  councils  else- 
where, are  very  numerous. 

The  franchise  in  the  municipalities  is  of  especial  importance, 
because  this  covers  also  the  right  to  vote  for  members  of  the  Insular 
Assembly.  The  suffrage  is  granted  to  every  male  person  of  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  legally  resident  in  the  municipality  for  six 
months,  provided:  (i)  that  he  held,  prior  to  August  13,  1898  (the 
date  of  the  capture  of  Manila  by  the  Americans),  the  office  of 
municipal  captain,  gobernadorcillo  (mayor),  alcalde  (provincial 
governor),  lieutenant,  cabeza  de  Barangay  (tax  collector),  or  mem- 
ber of  any  ayuntamiento  (council)  ;  (2)  that  he  owns  real  estate  to 
the  value  of  500  pesos,  or  pays  no  less  than  30  pesos  annually  in 
taxes,  or  (3)  that  he  is  able  to  speak,  read  and  write  English  or 
Spanish.  Of  course,  there  are  the  usual  exceptions,  of  those  who 
are  not  faithful  in  their  allegiance  to  the  United  States,  of  all  crim- 
inals of  certain  classes,  of  the  insane,  and,  finally,  of  any  person 
who  is  delinquent  in  the  payment  of  public  taxes  assessed  after 
August  13,  1898.  This  last  provision,  however,  applies  only  during 
continuance  of  the  period  of  non-payment. 


THE     PHILIPPINE     ISLANDS  393 

We  need  not  go  into  the  details  of  the  work  of  the  municipal 
council,  of  the  methods  of  holding-  elections,  or  any  similar  matters. 
It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  take  the  best 
features  of  such  laws  in  the  United  States  so  far  as  they  may  be 
applied  to  the  Filipinos. 

Besides  the  measures  mentioned,  which  provide  for  a  note- 
worthy degree  of  self-government  in  the  Philippines,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  appointments  to  office  under  the  Government 
are  made  under  a  rigid  system  of  civil  service  examinations.  More- 
over, this  civil  service  system  has  been  lived  up  to  faithfully  and 
well. 

The  statement  made  by  President  McKinley  that  so  far  as 
possible  the  Filipinos  should  be  given  a  share  in  the  administration 
of  their  government,  wherever  this  could  be  done  without  crippling 
the  service,  has  been  carefully  lived  up  to,  with  the  result  that  a 
constantly  increasing  proportion  of  the  offices  are  filled  by  Filipinos. 
The  last  report  of  the  Governor-General  calls  attention  to  the  fact 
that  4185  out  of  8232  applicants  examined  by  the  board  during  the 
fiscal  year  1905  took  examinations  in  English,  and  the  remainder 
in  Spanish.  Of  the  applicants  attending  the  examinations  in  Eng- 
lish, 2917,  or  70  per  cent.,  w'ere  Filipinos,  while  of  the  2442  taking 
English  examinations  in  1904  only  44  per  cent,  were  Filipinos. 

This  shows  not  merely  the  rapid  spread  of  English  among  the 
Filipinos,  but  still  further  their  confidence  that  the  Commission  has 
been  in  earnest  in  its  desire  to  fill  the  offices,  so  far  as  is  practicable, 
with  Filipinos.  "On  January  i.  1904,  the  ratio  of  Americans  to 
Filipinos  was  only  slightly  in  favor  of  the  latter,  but  on  January  i. 
1905,  it  was  approximately  three  Americans  to  four  Filipinos.  The 
proportion  in  favor  of  the  latter  is  constantly  increasing,  and  it  is 
believed  that  by  the  end  of  the  calendar  year  (1905)  the  ratio  will 
be  about  one  to  two."' 

From  the  time  that  the  Philippines  became  a  possession  of 
the  United  States,  the  g(^vennneiU  has  sought  to  improve  condi- 
tions and  give  all  advantages  for  which  the  pec:)ple  are  prepared. 
On  February  25,  1907,  in  accordance  with  this  policy.  Congress 
passed  a  bill  providing  for  Philippine  banks.  On  April  17,  1907, 
the  islands  v\'ere  visited  by  a  heavy  earthquake  which  did  nnich 
damage,  and  on  the  nineteenth  of  that  month,  fire  destroyed  Iloilo, 
Lsland  of  I'anav.  rendering  20,000  people  homeless.  The  Filipian 
assembly    was    formally   opened    October    16,    1907,    by    Secretary 


394  COLONIES     OF     THE     WORLD 

Taft  at  Manila,  and  Seiior  Osmana,  Nationalist,  former  governor 
of  Cebu,  was  elected  presiding  officer.  During  his  visit  to  the 
Philippines,  Secretary  Taft  inquired  into  local  affairs,  and  on 
January  26,  1908,  he  made  an  exhaustive  report  to  Congress  upon 
conditions  in  the  Philippines  based  upon  his  residence  and  recent 
trip  there.  The  number  of  Philippine  commissioners  was  in- 
creased to  nine,  on  Ma}^  2,  1908.  The  present  delegates  to  Con- 
gress, Benito  Legarda  and  Mannet  Inedon,  were  elected  by  the 
Philippine  legislature,  on  May  15,  1909.  The  present  tariff  bill 
for  the  Phihppines,  was  passed  by  Congress  on  July  9,  1909,  which 
the  Senate  confirmed  on  August  2. 

Of  course,  the  most  important  executive  offices  must  for  a  con- 
siderable time  be  held  by  Americans,  but  the  Filipinos  are  continu- 
ally acquiring  more  influence,  and  as  they  show  ability  they  are 
given  higher  positions.  Speaking  generally,  they  show  sobriety  and 
efficiency  to  a  fair  degree  in  the  work  that  has  been  entrusted  to 
them.  The  Filipinos  have  intelligence,  courtesy,  and  even  diligence. 
The  other  qualities  needed  are  those  that  must  come  by  experience 
and  thoughtful  observation.  It  will,  doubtless,  be  necessary  to 
practice  patience  for  a  considerable  time  before  we  see  these  develop. 
The  qualities  most  essential  for  self-government,  and  often  the  ones 
that  are  most  difficult  to  acquire  for  a  people  who  are  not  accus- 
tomed to  it,  are:  rigid  honesty  in  public  service,  self-control,  tolera- 
tion of  the  views  of  opponents,  willingness  to  accept  the  judgment 
of  an  opposing  majority  and  faithfully  to  help  carry  it  out  until 
the  judgment  can  be  changed,  readiness  to  compromise,  and  the 
spirit  of  self-sacrifice  for  the  public  service.  It  is  in  some  of  these 
qualities  rather  than  in  intelligence  that  the  Filipinos  are  lacking. 
They  do  not  willingly  yield  to  a  majority;  they  apparently  do  not 
judge  acts  in  their  proportionate  importance  as  accurately  as  do 
Anglo-Saxons.  These  qualities  are  developing  somewhat;  but  as 
yet  they  are  not  present  to  so  great  a  degree  as  that  in  which  they 
are  usually  found  in  successful  self-governing  countries. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  following  brief  list  makes  no  pretense  to  completeness,  nor  is  it  a  list 
of  authorities  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  edition.  It  is  a  selection  of  titles 
for  the  general  reader  ratlier  than  the  special  student,  and  for  this  reason  it 
includes  few  of  the  primary  sources  and  few  books  of  any  sort  in  foreign  lan- 
guages. The  exceptions  arc  works  of  great  intrinsic  importance,  or  those  w^hose 
ground  is  not  satisfactorily  covered  by  secondary  works  in  English.  For  the 
general  bibliography  of  colonization  the  student  maj'  consult  the  bibliographical 
notes  in  the  works  described  in  the  list,  also  A.  P.  C.  Griffin's  "  List  of  Books, 
with  References  to  Periodicals  Relating  to  the  Theory  of  Colonization,  Govern- 
ment of  Dependencies,  Protectorates,  and  Related  Topics"  (Library  of  Congress, 
Division  of  Bibliography,  2d  edition,  Washington,  1900).  Larned's  "Literature 
of  American  History"  and  "Supplement"  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1902),  gives  critical 
notes  upon  a  full  list  of  books  on  the  history  of  the  United  States,  including  tlie 
period  of  colonial  dependence,  and  also  that  of  recent  expansion  oversea,  and 
of  Canada;  also  on  the  period  of  early  discovery  and  conquest  (chiefly  Spanish 
and  Portuguese)  ;  and,  in  more  narrow  limits,  on  the  history  of  the  West  Indies, 
IMexico,  Central  and  South  America.  Here  should  also  be  mentioned  the  great 
store  of  critical  bibliographical  matter  in  Winsor's  "  Narrative  and  Critical  His- 
tory of  America"  (8  vols..  Boston,  c.  1S84-1889).  For  the  bibliography  of  par- 
ticular nations  or  colonics,  see  the  bibliographical  notes  in  the  works  described 
in  the  following  list.  For  the  Dutch  East  and  West  Indies,  Nijhoff's  "Catalogue 
dcs  livrcs  sur  Ics  possessions  nccrlandaiscs  aux  hides  orieutales  et  occidcntales 
.     .     .     cnvcnte  aux  prix  marques"  (La  Hayc,  1893),  should  be  noted. 


COLONIZATION    IN    GENERAL:    THEORY    AND    HISTORY 

Annual  Register:     A  Review  of  Public  Events  at  Home  and  Abroad.     London. 
1758-190.3. 
This   famous  annual  ha,-,   a   section   devoted   to  foreign   and   coloniril   history 
wherein  events  of  importance  are  cbroniclcd  each  year. 

"Essays  in  Colonial  I'inance"  (in  .•\nicrican  Economic  Association  Pub  ications, 
3d  series,  vul.  1,  Xn,  _:;.  New  York.  loon). 
Contents:  Rep'M-t  of  the  conuuiltce  in  colonies,  pp.  17-20;  French  colonial 
fiscal  system,  by  lulw  in  K.  Stliunian.  pp.  jo-^o ;  Ciennan  colonial  fiscal  system, 
by  Isidore  Loeb.  pp.  40-7J  :  I 'r.tch  Coldui:!!  ti>ca]  sy-tem,  by  Clive  Day,  pp.  jy 
T04:  lta1\'s  experience  \\'n\\  ciilnnie^.  by  .\lbcrt  Ci.  Keller,  pp.  105-III; 
Spanish  colonial  policy,  I)y  I'rank  W.  P)l;irkniar,  pp.  11J-143;  Danish  colonial 
fiscal  system  in  the  \\\-t  Indies,  by  C.  W.  Tooke,  jiji.  I44-IC)7;  Finances  in 
tlie  l'.rili->h  West  Indies,  by  Cli,ir](-,->  W.  Hull,  pi).  iO(r-iS8:  I'is.-al  system  of 
l-'.cvpt,  liv  v..  W.  KcnnnrriT,  pn.  iSo  J17;  Finances  (^f  British  possessions  in 
South  .Xfrica,  by  Kulaud  P.  I'alkner,  pp.  ji7-_'0j;  English  colonial  liscal  sys- 
tems in  the   I'ar   l".a<;,  by  Jcn-np:;!;   W.  .Kr.k-.  pp.  -;(i_:;-;^03. 


398  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Institut  Colonial  International. — "  Comptes  vendues  de  la  session  1895."     Paris, 
1S95.     Biennial  volumes. 
Proceedings  of  the  Institut,  with  reports,  addresses  and  papers  read  before  it. 
• "  Bibliotlieque  Coloniale  Internationale." — i^  sir.  "  La  main  d'ceuvre  aux  colo- 
nies," 3  vols.;  2^  scr.  "  Lcs  fiinctionnaires  coloniaux"  2  vols.;  3^  scr.  " Le 
regime  fancier  aux  colonies"  4  vols. ;  4^  scr.  "  Le  regime  des  protectorats," 
2  vols.     Bruxelles,  1895-9.     I3  vols.    Svo. 
This  is  a  valuable  collection  of  original  documents,  laws,  treaties,  and  others 
of  general  interest,  with  translations  of  the  same  into  French.     The  collec- 
tion deals  with  present  conditions  in  the  colonies  of  all  European  nations, 
not  with  the  history  of  the  past.    A  5th  series  is  announced,  "  Les  chemin  de 
fcrs  aux  colonies  et  dans  les  pays  ncufs." 
Ireland,  Alleyne. — "  Tropical  Colonization :  An  introduction  to  the  study  of  the 
subject."     London,  1899. 
An  attempt  "  to  lay  down  the  general  facts  of  colonization  "  and  to  discuss 
tropical  problems  in  general  in  the  light  of  all  European  experience  in  the 
tropics,  treating  methods  of  government,  labor  supply  and  effects  upon  the 
ruling  state.     The  conclusions  of  this  popular  work  are  to  be  accepted  with 
reserve.     The  account  of  the  Dutch  culture  system  in  Java,  for  instance,  is 
based  upon  Meney's  discredited  book,  in  apparent  ignorance  of  the  Dutch 
sources  of  information.    The  bibliography  (pp.  227-259),  classified  by  nations 
and  their  several  dependencies,  omits  many  works  of  importance. 
Leroy-Beaulieu,   Pierre   Paul. — "  De  la   colonisation   chcz  lcs  peuplcs  modcrnes. 
y  edition.     Complctcment  renianice  ct   considerable  me  )it  augmentce."     2 
vols.     Paris,  1902. 
This  well-known  work  by  an  eminent  economist  treats  of  the  history  and 
principles  of  colonization.     The  first  part  is  historical,  dealing  in  a  prelimi- 
nary chapter  with  the  period  before  the  nineteenth  century  and  then  with 
the  subsequent  period,  taking  up  each  colonizing  nation  in  detail.    The  second 
part  discusses  the  general  principles  of  colonization,  the  economic  and  social 
conditions  necessary  to  its  success,  and  the  economic  and  other  advantages 
resulting  from  it.     There  is  no  systematic  bibliograph.y  and  few  exact  refer- 
ences to  authorities. 
Lowell,  A.  Lawrence. — "Colonial  Civil  Service:  The  Selection  and  Training  of 
Colonial  Officials  in  Holland,  England  and  France."     With  an  account  of 
the  East  India  College  at  Haileybury  (1806-1S57),  by  H.  i^Iorse  Stephens. 
New  York,  1900. 
The  best  and  mo^t  complete  book  in  English  on  the  subject.     The  author 
visited  the  countries  named  and  personally  investigated  the  methods  of  train- 
ing men  for  the  colonial  service.     Under  each  country  he  reviews  the  history 
and  describes  present  conditions.     Me  includes  illustrative  documents,   such 
as   commissioners'   reports,    specimen    examination   papers   and   programmes, 
courses   of   study,   etc.      He   be!ic^■c';   European   methods   inapplicable   in   the 
United  States,  and  suggests  a  natioiK'.l  college  specially  devoted  to  the  train- 
iir::-  of  colonial  officials.     The  description  of  Haileybury  before  its  conversion 
iiuo  an  ordinary  lioy.^'  school  is  by  a  former  pupil,  by  training  an.d  tradition 
familiar  with  the  I'ritish  Indian  service. 
!Merivalc,   Herman. — "Lectures   on   Colonization:   Delivered   Before   the   Univer- 
sity ()f  Oxford  in   18.^9,   1840  and   1S41."     2  vols.     London,   1841-1842.     2d 
cd.     London,   J061. 
'Ihi--    v.- ;U-kn'.)uii    v. '  rk    is   thicny   concerned    with    the    economic   and    socia,! 
tli-'iry  of  colonization.     A  brief  fir^t  part  gives  an  historical   account  of  the 
J-  '■'■-irv-v  ol  ;'ie  colu:-.ie.-^  of  modern  ICurope ;  Part  il  deals  with  the  ccont)mic 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  399 

effects  of  colonization  in  the  parent  state;  and  Part  III  with  the  progress  of 
wealth  and  society  in  the  colonies. 
Morris,  Henry  C. — "  History  of  Colonization   from   the   Earliest  Times   to  the 

Present  Day."  2  vols.  New  York,  1900. 
This  ambitious  work  is  based  upon  secondary  authorities  which  are  used 
without  critical  discrimination.  It  includes  much  matter  concerning  the 
general  history  of  commerce  rather  than  colonization,  and  treats  inade- 
quately the  colonial  undertakings  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  times,  but  gives 
a  good  account  of  modern  colonization.  The  bibliography  of  30  pages  is 
uncritical,  omitting  many  works  of  importance  and  including  many  of  little 
value. 
Rcinscii,  Paul  Samuel. — "Colonial  Government:   An  Introduction  to  the   Study 

of  Colonial   Institutions."     (Citizens'  Library.)      New  York  and  London, 

1902. 
A  brief  outline  of  the  colonial  policy  of  the  several  European  powers.  Part 
I,  Motives  and  methods  of  colonization;  Part  II,  General  forms  of  colonial 
government;  Part  III,  In-titulions  of  colonial  government.  Economic  and 
social  problems  as  distinguished  from  institutional  forms  are  not  discussed. 
There  are  bibliographical  references  at  the  end  of  each  chapter. 
Roscher,  Wilhelm. — "  Kolnniivt.  Kol<>)ualpolilik  mid  Ausxvandcrung.     j?'^  vcrbcs- 

scrtc,  z'crmi-hylc,  and  zum  Thcil  <ia)iz  ncii  bcarbcitctc  AuHagc."     Leipzig, 

1885. 
This  standard  work  may  be  classed  with  those  of  Leroy-Beaulieu  and  Meri- 
vale.  Part  I  deals  v^ith  the  principles  of  colonization  in  general;  Part  II 
with  the  principal  colonial  systems  of  modern  times;  Part  III  (by  Robert 
Lawnasch)  with  the  colonial  problems  of  Germany.  The  footnotes  contain 
valuable  bibliographical  reference^.  The  chapter  on  the  Spanish  colonial 
system  i'-  now  accessilile  in  I'jiulish.  (Xoted  below  under  Spanish  colonies.) 
Smith,    Richmond    Mays. — "Immigration    and    Immigration:    A    Study    in    Social 

Science."     New  York,  rSrjS. 
A  scholarly  work  by  a  trained  economist  and  statistician;  especially  valuable 
for  immigration   into  the   United   States,   its   hi-tory,  causes   and  effects.     A 
brief  bibliography  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  work  (pp.  303-308). 
"Statesman's   \'ear   IjOok:   Statistical   and  historical   annual  of  the  states  of  the 

world  for  tlic  years  1864-1006."  43  vols.  -'-.  London,  1864-1006. 
This  trustworthy  annual  of  statistical  and  descriptive  information  devotes  a 
brief  space  to  the  colonics  and  dependencies  of  each  nation.  The  British 
empire  is  tir-t  treated,  and  then  other  nations  in  alphabetical  order.  Lists 
of  books  of  refcreiu'c  are  given  for  each  colony  or  group  of  colonies,  and 
the  whole  volninc  i~  veil  iTidexed.  .A  prclinrnary  section  of  statistical 
tables,  diagrams  and  nians  often  contains  matter  bearing  upon  colonial  trade, 
boundary  di-nute<,  c .-, 
Ziir.mermann,   .Mfreil. — " /^V  t-'.'rnf^jisrJh-:!    [\<'li>r!fu.     ScIiiUlrnmf:   Hirer   Untsfr- 

Ininc:.  y:";//i\7V'.'i7/(/Vc:.  Iirl'i^gr  v.'id  .lussid'.frii."  5  vols.  Berlin,  i8()6-i()03. 
These  volume-  toc^ctlier  con-^titnte  the  be-t  general  historical  narrative  of 
the  colonial  development  of  ll;i'  five  qreat  color.izinij  i-'.ations  of  modern 
timev.  (Vol.  I,  i^)|■tui;a!  ::;mI  S]^:i'a\  :  Vo!-;.  J-3.  Cireai  Britain:  Vol.  4,  I'rance  ; 
\'oi.  5.  The  Xctherland-.)  [•".aeh  \olinne  coutaiii-  a  r.-efnl  bibliography  of 
the  niM-t  impoftara  ^o^irer^  and  seeondarx'  auihorilies  .and  maps. 
- — —"  tl'idt    f-ci'itisrhrs:    lu-itragc    ur.d   Sfiidi.-n    zv.r   I'.cucvcn    K<>liii::aIhrZK'cgii)ig." 

Berlin.  looi. 
Collected  e--;!y^  wliicli  nia\-  1".'  n-ed   to  >;uiji]rm<-!it   the  aiuhor'.>  "  Pii'  ruri^- 
l^disdirii  /\"(i/'M:, •'(■)•."  treating  of:  F.ngli-!i  cliariered  companie^:  Cecil  Rhodes; 


400  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

End  of  the  Boer  republics;  Australian  commonwealth;  Famines  in  India; 
French  shore  in  Newfoundland;  (French)  West  Africa;  Africa  as  a  field 
for  international  trade ;  End  of  the  Spanish  colonial  empire ;  Pan-Ameri- 
canism; Monroe  doctrine;  Abyssinia;  Russia  and  India;  Russia  in  China; 
German  trade  interests  in  China,  etc. 


PORTUGUESE   COLONIES 

Beazley,  Charles  Raymond. — "  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  the  Hero  of  Por- 
tugal and  Modern  Discovery,  1394-1460  a.d."     ("Heroes  of  the  Nations.") 
New  York,  1895. 
A  good  brief  account  of  the  progress   of  geographical  knowledge   during 
the  Middle  Ages  and  of  the  life  and  work  of  the  inspirer  and  promoter  of 
the  Portuguese  search  for  a  water  route  to  the  East. 
Bourne,   Edward  Gaylord. — "Essays  in  Historical  Criticism."      (Yale  bicenten- 
nial publications.)     New  York,  1901. 
This  volume,  by  an  historical  scholar  eminent  in  this  field,  contains  admir- 
able brief  critical  accounts  of  Prince   Henry  the   Navigator,  his  purposes, 
methods  and  character  (pp.  173-189),  and  of  the  Demarcation  line  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI  (pp.  193-217),  which  divided  the  world,  for  colonial  purposes, 
between   Portugal  and   Spain,  including  treaties   and  other   diplomatic  acts 
confirming  and  amending  the  division.     The  footnotes  contain  valuable  bib- 
liographical references. 
Major,    Richard   Henry. — "Life   of   Prince   Henry   of   Portugal,    Surnamed   the 
Navigator,  and  its  Results,  Comprising  the  Discovery,  within  One  Century, 
of   Half  the   World;   from  Authentic   Contemporary  Documents."     Lon- 
don, 1868. 
A  learned  and  critical  but  controversial  account  of  the  discoveries  of  the 
15th  and  early  i6th  centuries.     A  second  edition    (1874)    presents  the  ma- 
terial in  more  brief  and  popular  form. 
Southey,  Robert. — "  History  of  Brazil."     3  vols.     London,  1810-1819. 

These  bulky  volumes  contain  a  good  narrative  history  of  the  colony  to  the 
date  of  the  arrival  of  the  royal  family  in  1808.     Continued  in — 
Armitage,  John. — "  History  of  Brazil  from  the  Arrival  of  the  Braganza  Family 
in  1808  to  the  Abdication  of  Don  Pedro  I  in  183 1,  Compiled  from  State 
Documents    and    Other    Original    Sources ;    Forming    a    Continuation    of 
Southey's  History  of  that  Country."     2  vols.     London,  1836. 
The  author  was  for  many  j'ears  a  resident  of  Brazil.     His  painstaking  nar- 
rative includes  the  end  of  the  colonial  period   (1808-1822).     He  prints  im- 
portant documents  in  the  appendix  of  Vol.  2  (pp.  157-297). 
Watson,   R.   G. — Spanish   and    Portuguese    South   America    during   the    Colonial 

Period.     2  vols.     London,  1884.     (Noted  below  under  Spanish  colonies.) 
Zimmermann,    Alfred.— " /?!(?    Kolonialj^olitik    Portxigals    unci    Spaniciis    .     .     ." 
Berlin,  1896.     (Volume  i  of  his  "Die  cnrop'dischcn  Koloiiicii,"  noted  above 
under  Colonization  in  General:  Theory  and  History.) 


SPANISH  COLONIES 

Bancroft.   ITnljcrt   llowc. — "History   of   Central   America"    (Works,   vols.   6-8). 

.San  I'"rancisco,   1882-1887. 
"History  of  ^Icxico,  1516-1887"   (Works,  vols.  0-14).     San  I-'rancisco,  iS8v 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  401 

"California  Pastoral,  1769-1848"  (Works,  vol.  34).     San  Francisco,  1888. 

There  is  a  good  general  account  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system  in  the  "  His- 
tory of   Central    America"    (vol.    i,   chap,   v),   and    a   good   description    of 
Mexican  life  and  institutions  at  the  end  of  the  colonial  epoch  in  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  third  volume  of  the  "  History  of  Mexico."     In  "  California  Pas- 
toral "  the  missions  in  California  are  described.     For  his  "  History  of  the 
Pacific   States,"   of  which   the   foregoing  volumes   arc   parts,   Mr.    Bancroft 
collected  a  vast  mass  of  sources,  which  were  indexed,  classified  and  used 
by  a  corps  of  writers  under  his  direction  in  the  compilation  of  his  extensive 
work.     His  bibliographies  are  very  full  and  valuable,  his  statements  verified 
by  references  to  the  authorities.    The  bulk  of  the  work  and  the  fact  that  it 
is   in  a  field  not  worked  before  are   sufficient  answers  to  the  critics  who 
complain  of  improper  emphasis  and  lack  of  proportion. 
Blair,  Emma  Helen,  and  James  Alexander  Robertson,  editors. — "  The  Philippine 
Islands,  1493-1898."     Translations  from  contemporaneous  books  and  man- 
uscripts,   with    historical    introduction    and    additional    notes    by    Edward 
Gaylord  Bourne.     Cleveland,  1903.    To  be  completed  in  55  vols. 
The  most  extensive  publication  of   Philippine   documents   ever  undertaken, 
beginning  with  the  bull  of  Alexander  VI  establishing  the  demarcation  line 
between  the  spheres  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  and  ending  with  the  American 
occupation.     It  was  originally  projected  to  end  with   1803.     Prof.   Bourne's 
introduction  (vol.  i)  of  70  pages  is  the  best  sketch  of  Philippine  history  in 
English,  and  contains  valuable  bibliographical  references  in  the  footnotes. 
Bourne,  F.dward  Gaylord. — "  Spain  in  America.  1450-1580."     With  maps.     ("  The 
American  Nation,"  edited  by  A.  B.  Hart,  vol.  3.)     New  York  and  London, 
1904. 
Narrative  of  the  discovery  of  America,  exploration  of  the  coast  line  and  of 
the  interior  of   North   America,   Magellan's   circumnavigation,   the   struggle 
between  Spain  and  France  for  Florida,  together  with  a  critical  account   (pp. 
202-319)  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system  and  a  critical  essay  upon  the  author- 
ities.   The  book  is  written  from  the  sources  by  a  scholar  of  high  repute.     It 
states  the  conclusion  of  modern  scholarship  as  to  the  discoveries,  and  gives 
one  of  the  best  accotuits  in  PZnglish  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system.     The 
author's  conclusions  are  favorable  to  Spanish  character  and  civilization,  and 
he  emphasizes  Spanish  achievement  in  civilizing  the   Indians. 
Dobrizhoffer,    Martin. — "  Account    of   the    Abipones,    an    Equestrian    People    of 
Paraguay."     From  the  Latin.     [Translation  bj-  Sara  Coleridge.]     3  vols. 
London,  1822. 
This  is  the  most  important  original  account  of  the  Jesuit  missions  in  Para- 
guay.     The   author   was   a    member   of    the   mission   and    gives    a    full    and 
interesting  picture  of  the  life  of  the  Indians. 
Foreman,   John. — "The    Philippine    Islands:     A    Political,    Geographical,    Ethno- 
graphical.  Social   and   Conunercial   History   of  the    Philippine   Archipelago 
and   its   Political   Dependencies.  Embracing  the   Whole   Peri(xl   of   Spanish 
Rule."     _'(1  cJ.     Revi>cd  and  enlarged  witli  maps  and   illustrations.     New 
York,   1890. 
The  author  is  well  acquainted  with  the  Philippines  and  gives  a  concise  and 
trustworthy    account   of   their    history    and    conditions    at   the    close    of   the 
Spanish  dominion. 
Graham,    R.    ]'«.    Cunningham. — "A    Vanished    Arcadia:      Being    Some    .Account 
of  the  Jesuits  in  Paraguay,  1607-1767."     With  a  map.     New  York,  1901. 
The  author  has  traveled  and  lived  in  South  .-Xmerica  and  i^  well  acqu.iiiUed 
with  the  soiirees  and  literature  of  his  subject.     lie  writes  with  vigor  as  an 
advocate  of  the  mission  sv.-tein. 


402  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Haebler,  Konrad. — "  The  Colonial  Kingdom  of  Spain ;  The  War  of  Independ- 
ence in  the  South."    [In  Vol.  I  of  "The  History  of  the  World:    A  Survey' 
of  Man's  Record."  edited  by  Hans  F.  Helmolt,  with  an  introduction  by 
James  Boyce.     New  York,  1902.     German  edition,  Berlin,  Vienna,  1899.] 
These  are  Chapters  5  and  8  of  the  author's  "  America,"  which  is  itself  Part 
V  of  this  volume,  giving  excellent  accounts  of  the  colonial  system  and  wars 
of  independence  in   Spanish  America.     The  English  translation   is  obscure 
and  the  German  edition  of  the  work  is  far  cheaper  and  less  bulky  than  the 
English  version. 
Helps,  Sir  Arthur. — "  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America."    4  vols.     London  and 
New  York,  1855-1861.     New  ed.  by  Oppenhcim,  1900. 
This  standard  work  was  written  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  philanthropist, 
and  treats  fully  the  status  of  the  Indians  and  the  beginnings  of  slavery.    The 
author's  purpose  was  to  make  a  contribution  to  the  history  of  slavery.     His 
book  is  not  a  narrative,  but  a  study  of  causes  and  results. 
Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  von. — "  Personal  Narrative  of  Travels." 
Translated  by  Helen  Maria  Williams.     7  vols.     London,  1818-1829. 

Same.    Translated  by  Thomasina  Ross.    3  vols.     London,  1852- 1853. 

"  Political   Essay   on   the    Kingdom   of    New    Spain."     Translated   by   John 

Black.     2  vols.     London  and  New  York,  181 1. 

"  The  Island  of  Cuba."     Translated  by  J.  S.  Thrasher.     New  York,  1856. 

Humboldt's  travels,  originally  published  in  French    ("  Voyage  aux  Regions 
Equinoxialcs  du  Nouvcau  Continent,  i/gg-1804."    29  vols.     Paris,  1807-1817), 
is  the  best  source  of  our  knowledge  of  actual  conditions  in  the  later  colonial 
days  of  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  the  northeastern  part  of  South  America.     The 
English  translations    ("Personal   Narrative  of  Travels")    include  the  "Po- 
litical Essay  on  the  Island  of  Cuba."  which  has  also  been  separately  trans- 
lated b}'  Thrasher  from  a  Spanish  translation  of  tlie  original,  with  a  prelim- 
inary essay  and  notes  bringing  the  statistics  down  to   1856.     The  "  Political 
Essay  on  New  Spain"  was  included  in  the  original  "Voyage  aux  Regions 
Equinoxiales  du  Nouvcau  Continent,"  but  is  not  in  the  English  "  Personal 
Narrative  of  Travels."     The  separate  translation  by  Black  is  incomplete. 
Juan  y  Santacilia,  Jorge  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa. — "  Voyage  to  South  America." 
Translated  by  John  Adams.    2  vols.    London,  1758. 
This  report  by  two  Spanish  naval  officers  is  of  great  value  for  its  descrip- 
tion of  conditions  in  New  Grenada  and  Peru.    It  was  first  printed  in  Spanish 
in  1748.    Their  secret  report  ("  Noticias  secretas  de  America."  London.  1S26. 
not  translated),  exposes  the  corruption  of  political  and  social  life. 
Lea,  Henry  C. — "The  Indian   Policy  of   Spain."      [In  "Yale  Review,"   Vol.   8, 
pp.  1 19-155,  August.  1899.1 
A  critical  study  by  the  most  eminent  of  living  American  historical  scholars, 
dealing  with  the  policy  of  Spain  toward  the  American  natives  and  the  career 
of  Las  Casas. 
Lowcry,   Woodbury. — "The   Spanish   ScUlemcnts   within   the   Present   Limits   of 
the  United  States.  1513-1561."     With  IVlaps.     New  York  and  London,  1901. 
A   careful   narrative   of   discovery,   exploration    and   settlement    in    the    Gulf 
region.  New  IMcxico,  Arizona  aiul  California,  containing  a  good  account  of 
the  missions.     Footnotes  contain  bibliographical  references. 
IMoses,    BcTiiard. — "The    Establishment    of    Spanish    Rule    in    America."      New 
York.  T898. 
\  brief  and  clear  account  of  the  governmental  organization  of  the  Spanish- 
American  colonies. 
Pons,   Franqois-Raimond   Joseph    de. — "  Voyage   to   the    Eastern    Part   of    Terra 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  403 

Firnia  or  the  Spanish  Main  in  South  America,  1801-1804 ;  Translated  by  an 

American  Gentleman  [Washington  Irving]."    3  vols.     New  York,  1806. 

The  author  was  the  French  government  agent  at  Caracas,  and  gives  one  of 

the  best  descriptions  of  colonial  life  just  before  the  war  of  independence. 

Especially  valuable  for  the  administrative,  religious  and  commercial  systems. 

Robertson,  William. — "History  of  America."     2  vols.     London,  1777. 

Book  VIII  of  this  once  famous  work  gives  an  account  of  the  administrative 
and  commercial  systems  in  the  Spanish  colonies  which  is  still  valuable. 
Roscher,  Wilhelm. — "  The  Spanish  Colonial  System    .     .     ."     Translation  edited 

by  Edward  Gaylord  Bourne.  New  York,  1904. 
This  translation  of  one  chapter  of  Roschcr's  "  Kolonicn"  (noted  above  under 
Colonization  in  General:  Theory  and  History),  makes  available  to  the  gen- 
eral reader  one  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system.  The 
bibliographical  footnotes  of  the  original  are  enriched  by  the  editor's  addi- 
tions, especially  by  noting  b'nglish  translations  of  the  .sources  cited  by 
Roscher. 
Walton,   Clifford    Stevens. — "  The    Civil   Law   in    Spain   and    Spanish   America." 

Washington,  1900. 
Contains  brief  accounts  of  the  development  of  the  civil  law  in  Spain  and 
Spanish  America,  of  the  laws  of  the  Indies  and  of  Mexico,  with  translations 
of  the  Mexican  constitution,  of  t'ne  Cuban  autonomous  constitution  of  1897, 
of  the  principal  Spanish  laws  in  force  in  Cuba.  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philip- 
pines, and  of  the  Spanish  civil  code.  The  last  is  very  fully  annotated. 
Watson,  Robert  Grant. — "  Spanish  and  Portuguese  .America  Durir.g  the  Colonial 

Period."    2  vols.     London,  1884. 
This  is  the  best  general  narrative  in  luiglish  (jf  the  history  of  colonial  South 
America  as  a  wht)le. 
Worcester,  Dean  Conant. — "The  Philippine  Islands  and  their  People:    A  Record 

of  Personal   Observation  and   l^xperience.  with   a   Short   Sinnmary  of  the 

More   Important   Facts   in  the   llistorv  of  the   Archipelago."     New   York, 

1898. 
The  author  gets  his  history  from  Foreman   (noted  above),  but  his  account 
of   present   conditions   has    ir.dependent   value.      He   was    in    t'ne    islands   on 
scicntiiic  expeditions  in  J8S7-1888  and  1890-189^1,  and  his  book  is  a  record  of 
his  experiences. 
Zimmermami,   Alfred. — "  Pic   Ki)hr,iialpolitik   P'jrtu^als   and  SpaniL-;is."     Berlin, 

1896.     (Volume  I  of  his  "  Die  ci<)\}paisclh'i!  Kolonicn,"  noted  above  under 

Colonization  in  General:  TheDrv  and  llistorv.) 


P.RITISI !    COI.OXIF .S— GFXh:RAL 

Beer,  George  Louis. — "  Tl'.e  G 'Piiu.  r^-ial   PMncy  of  ]".ni;lan(l  Toward  the  Ameri- 
can   ColiMiic--;."       (Ciilnniljia    C^'llcge    S'ludie-    in    lli-tory     .     .     .     Vol.    3. 
No.  2.)      New  V..rk.   r,S.)3. 
A  scholarly  accmint  of  tlie  ;i;i\  i'.;;itinn  acts  and  other  measures  of  the  Briti.-h 
governnuT.t   re>tr!Clii!,^-.    reir.'hitir.L;'  ;i;'.il    eiu'c;; racing   colonial   connnerce   and 
indu--;ry.  allowing  tliai  t!ie   r.riti-li  T'-^hcy.  thonL;!i  mi-t:iken,  wa-;  not  inteii'lecl 
to    he    I  ■p|)re--i\ .-.      'llie    v.'t';    i-    tm-el    on    -iri'.c    ]i:tprv^    and    I'tluT    original 
soiHVi.-.      A   I.ilii'oL;!- i|,'.\    ;..   l;:\-.  ;;   ,>:'    ;i,).    150- 107. 
"  r.ritish  l-.ni;)ire  S.t;   -."     |  l.^'Cliir;-  :it  :'  ■•  Sk-u'i   l'I;u-e  In-^titute.]     .<  voL.     Lon- 
don, iSi)i)-n)(\\ 
Popular  lecture^  given,   in   London   lo   ~pre;id  triistwortliy   information   as   to 


404  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

all  parts  of  the  empire.     (Vol.  i,  India,  Ceylon,  Straits  Settlements,  British 
North   Borneo   and   Hong-Kong;    Vol.   2,    British    Africa;    Vol.    3,    British 
America;  Vol.  4,  Australasia.)     The  lecturers  differed  in  ability,  scope  of 
treatment  and  points  of  view. 
Chalmers,  George,  Editor. — "  Opinions  of  Eminent  Lawyers  on  Various  Points 
of  English  Jurisprudence,  Chiefly  Concerning  the  Colonies,  Fisheries  and 
Commerce  of  Great  Britain    ..."    2  vols.     London,  1814.     Burlington, 
1858. 
A  valuable  record  of  the  current  of  legal  opinion  in  England  upon  the  rela- 
tions   between    Great    Britain    and    her    American    colonies,    chiefly    in    the 
eighteenth  century. 
Cunningham,  William. — "  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce."     3  vols. 
Cambridge,  1896- 1903. 
A  work  of  high  value  dealing  with  the  progress  of  agriculture,  manufac- 
tures, trade,  colonies,  shipping,  economic  opinion,  and  other  topics  of  eco- 
nomic history.     (Vol.  i,  Early  and  Middle  Ages;  Vols.  2-3,  Modern  Times.) 
For  bibliography   see   Vol.    i,   pp.   651-673,   and   Vol.   3,   pp.   943-998.     The 
appendices  contain  illustrative  documents,  statistical  tables,  etc. 
Dilke,   Sir  Charles   Wentworth — "  Problems   of   Greater   Britain."     With  maps. 
London  and  New  York,  1890. 
"  A   treatise  on  the  present  position   of  Greater   Britain,   m  which   special 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  relations  of  the  English-speaking  countries 
with  one  another,  and  to  the  comparative  politics  of  the  countries  under 
British  government."    The  several  colonies  are  treated  individually. 
Egerton,  Hugh  Edward. — '"A  Short  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy."     Lon- 
don, 1897;  New  York,  1898. 
A  scholarly  work  based  on  a  thorough  study  of  the  printed  and  manuscript 
sources.     The  narrative  is  divided  into  five  periods :     i.  Beginnings,   1497- 
1650;  2,  Trade  ascendency,   1651-1830;  3,  Granting  responsible  government, 
1831-1860;   4,  Laissez-aller;   5,   Greater   Britain.     For  bibliography,   see  pp. 
481-489. 
"  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  English  Colonies  and  of  their  System  of  Gov- 
ernment :  An  Introduction  to  C.  P.  Lucas's  Historical  Geography  of  the 
British  Colonies."     Oxford,  1903. 
An    excellent   brief    sketch    of    English    colonial    development,    with    special 
reference  to  the  local  political  systems  of  the  colonies  and  their  connection 
with  the  home  government.     There  are  also  chapters  on  the  mercantile  sys- 
tem, the  age  of  discovery  and  the  other  European  colonizing  powers,  ancient 
and  modern.     Bibliographical  references  at  the  end  of  each  chapter. 
Great  Britain. — Board  of  Trade.     "  Statistical  Abstract  for  the  Several  Colonial 
and  Other  Possessions  of  the  United  Kingdom."     London. 
This    annual    publication   gives    important   official    statistics    of    the    several 
colonies  and  dependencies. 

Colonial   Office. — "  Colonial   Office   List     .     .     ."     London,   annual. 

An  annual  publication  giving  valuable  historical  and  statistical   information 
about  the  several  colonies  and  dependencies.     Compiled  from  official  records. 
jenk>Tis,  Sir  Henry. — "  British  Rule  and  Jurisdiction  Beyond  the  Seas ;   with  a 
Preface  by  Sir  Courtenay  Ilbert."     Oxford,  1902 
An  excellent  account  of  the  legal  side  of  the  British  colonial  system.     The 
author's  long  experience  as  parliamentary  counsel  of  the  treasury  especially 
qualified  him  for  his  work. 
Jenks,  Jeremiah   W. — "  Report  on   Certain   Economic   Questions   in  the   English 
and  Dutch  Colonics  of  the  Orient."     Washington,  1902. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  405 

This  report  of  a  commissioner  of  the  United  States  deals  with  forms  of 
government,  currency,  Chinese  immigration,  taxation,  etc.,  and  covers  Java, 
the  Straits  Settlements,  Burma,  Egypt,  India  and  Ceylon. 

Lucas,  Charles  Prestwood. — "  A  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies." 
5  vols.  -f.  Oxford  and  New  York,  1888-1901. 
The  author  aims  to  give  a  connected  account  of  the  colonies,  of  the  geo- 
graphical and  historical  reasons  for  their  belonging  to  England,  and  of  the 
special  place  which  each  colony  holds  in  the  empire.  His  materials  are 
carefully  gathered  and  skillfully  used.  (Vol.  i,  European  dependencies, 
minor  Asiatic  dependencies,  British  dependencies  in  the  Alalay  seas;  Vol.  2, 
West  Indies,  British  Guiana,  British  Honduras,  Falkland  Islands,  South 
Georgia;  Vol.  3,  British  Africa;  Vol,  4,  South  and  East  Africa  (in  two 
parts)  ;  Vol.  5.  Canada,  Part  i.) 

Seeley,  Sir  John  Robert. — "'  The  Expansion  of  England :  Two  Courses  of  Lec- 
tures."    London  and  Boston,  1883. 
A  suggestive  and  stimulating  book  treating  separately  the  American  colonies 
and  India,  characterized  by  breadth  of  view  and  simplicity  of  style. 

Tarring,  Charles  James. — "  Chapters  on  the  Law  Relating  to  the  Colonies." 
London,  1882. 

Same.    2d  ed.  enlarged.     London,  1893. 

A  valuable  legal  treatise  upon  the  legal  side  of  the  colonial  system  as  shown 
in  British  statutes  and  in  the  decisions  of  the  English  courts. 

Todd,  Alpheus. — "  Parliamentary  Government  in  the  British  Colonies."  Boston, 
1880.  2d  ed.  London  and  New  York,  1894. 
A  convenient  handbook  of  the  parliamentary  government  in  its  practical 
operation  in  the  self-governing  colonies,  with  chapters  on  the  relations  of 
the  sovereign  to  parliamentary  government,  the  application  of  parliamentary 
government  to  colonial  institutions,  the  history  of  its  introduction  into  the 
colonies,  and  the  position  and  functions  of  a  colonial  governor. 

Woodward,  W.  H. — "  A  Short  History  of  the  Expansion  of  the  British  Empire, 
1500-1870."     Cambridge,  1899. 
A    brief   and    clear   narrative   of   British   colonization,    including    India    and 
other  dependencies,  from  its  beginnings.     With  maps. 

Zimmermann,  Alfred. — "Die  KoUuiialpoHtik.  Grosshritaiuncns"  (Vols.  2-3  of 
his  ''Die  curupiiischcn  Koloiticn."  Noted  above  under  Colonization  in 
General;  Theory  and  History). 


BRITISH    COLONIES— ASIA   AND    AFRICA 

For  books  on  India  and  Africa,  see  the  volumes  of  this  scries  devoted  to 
these  regions  respectively.  James  Bryce's  "Impressions  of  South  Africa''  (3d 
ed.,  London,  1899),  gives  a  good  account  of  the  phy>ical  features,  climate,  con- 
ditions, history  and  race  problems  of  that  coimtry,  with  valuable  maps.  His 
"Two  South  African  Constitutions"  (Forum,  .\pril.  tS<X);  reprinted  in  his 
"  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence."  New  York  and  London  c.  1901,  pp. 
369-390),  describes  the  con.-titutious  of  tlie  two  Boer  republics  as  they  stood  in 
1895.  Leroy-Beanlieu's  account  of  South  Africa  is  noted  below  (British  Colo- 
nies— Australasia).  Sir  Spencer  St,  John's  "Rajah  Brooke,  the  Englishman  as 
Ruler  of  an  Eastern  State"  ("Builders  of  Greater  Britain,"  London,  1S99),  deals 
with  the  remarkable  career  of  the  fou.nder  of  British  rule  in  North  Borneo.  See 
also  Jenks,  "  Report  on  Certain  Economic  Questions  in  the  English  and  Dutch 
Colonies  of  the  Orient."     (Noted  above  under  British  Colonies,  General.) 


406  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BRITISH    COLONIES— AUSTRALASIA 

Brycc,   James. — "The    Constitution   of  the    Commonweahh   of   Australia."      [In 
his    "  Studies    in    History   and   Jurisprudence,"    pp.    391-462.      New    York 
and  London,  c.  1901.] 
Traces  the   movement   for   federation,   the   causes   which   brought   it   about, 
the   phj'sical   and   social   conditions    affecting   it ;    and   carefully    studies   the 
Australian  constitution  from  the  historical  point  of  view,  comparing  it  with 
the  constitutions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Jenks,   Edward. — "  A  History  of  the  Australasian   Colonies   from  Their  Foun- 
dation to  the  Year  1903."     Stereotyped  edition.     ("  Cambridge  Historical 
Series").     Cambridge,   1897. 
The  best  brief  narrative  history  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.     Written 
from  parliamentary  papers,   colonial   archives   and   contemporary  narratives 
of  travel  and  exploration.     Special  attention  is  given  to  constitutional  devel- 
opment.   The  author  w'as  formerly  a  university  officer  in  Ivlelbourne. 
Lloyd,  Henry  Demarest. — "  Newest  England :     Notes  of  a  Democratic  Traveller 
in  New  Zealand,  with  Some  Australian  Comparisons."     New  York,  1900. 
A  laudatory  account  of  the  various  manifestations  of  socialism  in  govern- 
ment undertakings  in  New  Zealand. 
Leroy-Beaulieu,   Pierre   Paul. — " Lcs  KouvcUcs  Socictcs  Anglo-Saxouncs,  Aus- 
tralic,  N o'dveJlc-Zclav.d ,  Afriqiic,  Australc,  NouvcUc   idltioi   cnticrement 
refonduc."     Paris,  1901. 
A  descriptive  account  of  Australia,   New  Zealand   and   South   Africa.     He 
criticises   the   socialistic   experiments   of   the    Australasian   colonics    and   the 
British  policy  toward  the  Boers  in  South  Africa. 
Parkes,  Sir  Henry. — "  Fifty  Years  in  the  jMaking  of  Australian  Hi.~tory."     Lon- 
don, 1S92. 
Autobiography  of  the  eminent  Australian  statesman   (1S15-1896)    and  leader 
of  the  federation  movement. 
Rees,  William  Lee. — ''  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  George  Grey."    London.  1892. 

Biography   of  the   disting-aished   governor   of    South   Australia    (1841-1845), 
Cape  Colony  (1853-1S61),  and  New  Zealand  (1845-1853  and  1861-1867),  ^nid 
parliamentary  leader  in  the  latter  colony    (1874-1894).     His  career  in   New 
Zealand  covers  nearly  the  whole  period   since  ihe  first  English  settlement, 
and    his   services   to  that   colony   were   of    incalculable   value.      His   rule    in 
South  Australia  and  Cape  Colony  was  of  great  importance.     The  author's 
sources  for  South  Australia  were  meager. 
Quick,   John   and   Robert   Randolph   Garran. — '"  The   Annotated    Constitution   of 
the  Australian  Commonwealth."     Sydney  and  London,  looi. 
The  historical  introduction  to  this  volume  contains  a  sketch  of  the  develop- 
ment  of   colonial   government   in   Australia   and    New   Zealand,    and    a    full 
account  of  the  movement  for  federation  from  the  earliest  beginnings.     The 
constitution  is  elaborately  annotated   v>-ith   references  to   English,   American, 
Canadian  and  other  precedents,  and  each  clause  has  printed  with  it  the  cor- 
responding clauses  of  the  consli'tutions  of  the  United   States,  Canada,   Ger- 
many and  Switzerland. 
'■  (.iimniunwealth      of     Australia — Parliament,      Aces     .     .     .     passed     .     .     .     in 
^he     .     .     .     \\v-,i    and    second    >e>sions    of   tlie    iir.-t    parlianieiu."      2    vols. 
1903- 1904. 
'I  licse   volumes   contain   the   fe.leral    constitution    and    all    acts   passed   up   to 
()ctr)l)LT.    igo3.    incliuling   {h^    inipurtant   acts   org.anizing   the    several    ilep.art- 
nieiits  of  t!ie  new   federal  '.'O',  enuuent. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  407 


BRITISH    COLONIES— AMERICA 

For  Canada  see  also  French  colonies   (noted  below).     This  list  does  not 
include  books  dealing  with  the  colonial  era  of  the  United  States. 
Bourinot,  Sir  John  George. — "  Canada  under  British  Rule,  1760-1900."     ("  Cam- 
bridge Historical  Series.")     Cambridge  and  New  York,  1900. 
"The  Story  of  Canada"  ("Story  of  the  Nations").     New  York  and  Lon- 
don, 1896. 
These  are  good  popular  histories  in  brief  form  by  a  competent  scholar  and 
government  official.     "  The   Story  of  Canada "  covers  all  Canadian  history 
from    Cabot's    voyage   to    1891.      (Bibliographical    note    pp.    xix-xx.)      The 
other  work  is  largely  concerned  with  the  evolution  of  self-government  and 
confederation.     (Bibliography  pp.  327-330.) 
Boyce,  George. — "A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People."    London,  1887. 

A  good  sketch  of  Canadian  history  to  1886,  crowded  with  facts.     There  are 
bibliographic  references  at  the  head  of  each  chapter. 

"The  Remarkable  History  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  Including  that  of 

the  French  Traders  of  Northwestern  Canada  and  of  the  Northwest,  X.  Y., 
and  Astor  Fur  Companies."  London  and  New  York,  1900. 
This  is  the  best  history  of  this  great  trading  and  governing  monopoly.  The 
author  is  personally  familiar  with  his  field,  and  his  account  is  especially  full 
for  the  period  since  the  amalgamation  of  all  the  British  fur  interests  in  North 
America.  Much  of  his  information  was  from  the  lips  of  survivors.  A  list 
of  authorities  and  references  is  given  on  pp.  481-486. 
Eden,  Charles  Henry. — "  The  West  Indies."     London,  1880. 

A   brief   summary   of   West    Indian   history,   with   special   reference   to   the 
British  possessions  there,  based  upon  secondary  authorities. 
Edwards,  Bryan. — "  History,  Civil  and  Commercial,  of  the  British  Colonies   in 
the  West  Indies."    5  vols.     5th  ed.     London,  1819. 
The  best  work  on  the  subject,  accurate  in  matter  and  attractive  in  style. 
The  fifth  is  the  best  edition. 
Kingsford,    William. — "  History   of   Canada."      10   vols.     Toronto    and   London, 
1887-1898. 
This   is   the   most   extended   and   comprehensive   history   of   Canada   to   the 
year  1841. 
Prowse,  D.  W. — "A  History  of  Newfoundland,  from  the  English,  Colonial  and 
Foreign  Records."     2d  ed.  revised  and  corrected.     London,  1896. 
This  standard  work  gives  the  history  of  the  island  from  the  time  of  the 
earliest  settlement.     It  is  based  on  very  thorough  research. 
Walker,  H.  de  R. — "The  West  Indies  and  the  Empire:  Study  and  Travel  in  tlie 
Winter  of  1900-IQ01."     London,  1901. 
This  is  the  amplification  of  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute 
dealing  with  present  conditions,  the  sugar  industry,  the  Negro  and  the  East 
Indian,  taxation  and  administration,  and  travel  in  the  West  Indies. 
Willson,    Beckles. — "The    Great    Company,    1667-1871  ;    Being   a   History   of   the 
Honorable    Company    of    Merchant    Adventvirers    Trading    into    Hudson's 
Bay.    Compiled  from  the  Company's  Archives,  from  Diplomatic  Documents 
and  State  Papers  of  h>ance  and  England,  from  the  Narratives  of  Factors 
and  Traders,  and  from  Many  Accounts  and  Memoirs.''     2  vols.     London, 
igoo. 
Gives  an  account  of  the  couunercial  and  politica.l  activities  of  the  company. 
Less  full  than   Boyce's  volume    (noted  above)    for  the  la-t  So  years.     The 


408  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

author's  materials  are  indicated  in  the  title.  He  uses  them  without  literary 
art,  but  his  pages  are  filled  with  valuable  information. 

FRENCH   COLONIES 

Bateson,  Mary. — "  The  French  in  America,  1608-1744."     [In  "  Cambridge  Mod- 
ern History,"  Vol.  7,  pp.  70-113.]     Cambridge,  1903. 
A  good  brief  account  of  French  colonial  enterprise  in  America  before  the 
final  struggle  with  England.     Bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

Bourne,  H.  E. — "A  French  Colonial  Experiment  in  the  Far  East."     [In   Yale 
Review,  Vol.  8,  May,  1899.] 
A  short  account  of  French  colonization  and  conquest  in  Indo-China. 

Bradley,    Arthur    Granville. — "  The    Fight    with    France    for    North    America." 
Westminster  and  New  York,  1900. 
An  excellent  account  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  America,  leading  to  the 
conquest  of  Canada. 

"  The  Conquest  of  Canada,  1744-1761."     [In  "  Cambridge  Modern  History," 

Vol.  7,  PP-  1 14-143-] 
A  good  brief  account  of  the  same  subject.     Bibliography  at  the  end  of  the 
volume. 

Gafifarel,  Paul  Louis  Jacques. — "  Les  Colonies  Frangaises.  6^  edition,  revue  ct 
augmentce."  Paris,  1899. 
Devotes  a  brief  preliminary  chapter  to  Fr<?nch  colonization  as  a  whole,  and 
then  treats  each  colony  separately.  Bibliographical  lists  are  prefixed  to  each 
chapter.  The  author  is  an  enthusiastic  believer  in  the  necessity  of  coloniza- 
tion for  France. 

Norman,  C[harles]   Bfoswell]. — "Colonial  France."     London,  1886. 

This  work  deals  briefly  with  a  general  historical  summary  and  the  general 
financial  administration  of  the  colonies,  and  then  gives  a  description  and 
historical  account  of  each  colony  separately.  The  author  writes  as  a  hostile 
critic  of  French  colonization. 

Paris  Exposition  Universelle  de  1900. — "Publications  de  la  Commission  Chargee 
de  Preparer  la  Participation  du  Ministcre  des  Colonies."  5  vols.  Paris, 
1900-1902. 
The  first  volume  of  this  official  publication  is  a  history  (by  Marcel  Dubois 
and  Auguste  Terrier)  of  French  colonization  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
other  volumes  deal  with  the  administrative,  judicial,  political  and  financial 
organization,  exploitation,  education,  the  survival  of  the  French  spirit  in 
colonies  lost  to  France,  the  land  system,  labor  system  and  agriculture.  The 
authors  are  ofiicials  of  the  colonial  office  and  scholars  interested  in  colonial 
problems. 

Parkman,  Francis. — Works.  New  library  edition.  12  vols.  Boston,  1898. 
The  best  narrative  of  the  French  regime  in  Canada,  French  exploration  and 
settlement  in  Florida  and  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  the  English  conquest; 
written  from  tlie  sources,  marked  by  knowledge  of  the  field,  far-reaching 
research,  accuracy,  good  judgment  and  literary  skill.  Originally  written  as 
separate  studies  but  forming  a  connective  narrative  if  read  in  the  following 
order:  "Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World";  "The  Jesuits  in  North 
.'\mcrica";  "La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West";  "The  Old 
Regime  in  Canada";  "Frontenac";  "A  Half  Century  of  Conflict";  "Mont- 
calm and  Wolfe";  "The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac."  Volume  12,  "The  Oregon 
i  rail  "  is  a  narrative  of  tlie  author's  experience  among  the  Indians  of  the 
far    Northwest. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  409 

"  The  Struggle  for  a  Continent."    Edited  from  the  writings  of  Francis  Park- 
man  by  Pelham  Edgar.     Boston,  1902. 
An  abridgement  of  Parkman's  works  made  up  of  selected  passages  connected 
by  narrative  supplied  by  the  editor. 
Rambaud,   Alfred. — "  La   France   Colonialc:      Histoirc,   Geographic,   Commerce. 
Ouvrage  public  sans  la  direction  de  M.  Alfred  Rambaud."     7th  edition. 
Paris,  1896. 
A   collaborative  work  under  the  general   editorship  of   a  well-known  his- 
torical  scholar.     An  historical   introduction   of  40  pages,  by  the   editor,   is 
followed  by  separate  accounts  of  the  several  colonies  by  authors  who  have 
personally  studied  conditions  on  the  ground. 
Zimmermann,   Alfred.—"  Die   Kolonialpolitik   Frankreichs."      [Volume   4   of  his 
"Die  europdischen  Kolonien,"  noted  above  under  Colonization  in  General: 
Theory  and  History.] 


DUTCH    COLONIES 

Boys,    Henry    Scott. — "  Some    Notes   on   Java   and    its    Administration    by    the 
Dutch."     Allahabad,  1892. 
This  is  "  an  independent  study  and  of  value,  but  neglects  the  work  of  the 
Dutch    historians    and    critics." — Day's    "  Policy    ...     of    the    Dutch    in 
Java,"  p.  254. 
Day,    Clive    Hart. — "  The    Policy   and   Administration    of   the    Dutch    in   Java." 
New  York  and  London,  1894. 
This  is  the  first  thorough  and  trustworthy  book  jn  English  on  the  economic 
history  of  the  chief  Dutch  dependency,  and  is  based  upon  a  careful  study 
of  all   the  Dutch   printed   sources.     It   is   chiefly  concerned   with   the   origin, 
growth  and  abolition  of  the  so-called  "  Culture   System "  of   forced  labor, 
which  is   found  to  have  been  oppressive  and  wasteful.      (Bibliography  pp. 
xix-xxi  and  footnotes  throughout  the  work.) 
Jenks,  Jeremiah   W. — "  Report  on   Certain   Economic   Questions  in  the  English 
and  Dutch  Colonies  of  the  Orient."     (Noted  above  under  British  Colonies, 
General.) 
Money,  J.  W.  B. — "Java;  or,  How  to  Manage  a  Colony:     Showing  a  Practical 
Solution  of  the  Questions   Now   Affecting   British   India."     2  vols.     Lon- 
don, 1861. 
This   book   has   been   the   source   of   English   and   American   opinion   on   the 
culture   system    for   nearly   half   a   century.       The   author's    information   was 
obtained  by  a   short   stay   in  Java   for  iiealth's   sake.     The   system   was  then 
on  the   defensive,   and   ofhcials   took   care   to   show   it    in   a    favorable   light. 
The  book   is   wholly   untrustworthy,   and   its   results   are   shown   to   be   false 
by  Day's  "Policy  and  Administration  of  tlie  Dutch  in  Java"  (noted  above). 
Raffles,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford. — "  Tlie  History  of  Java."     2  vols.     2d  ed.     Lon- 
don, 1830. 
The  author   (1781-1826)    was  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
during  the  short  British  occupation    (1811-1815),  and  founder  of  Singapore 
(i8r9).     He  acquired  va-^t  scientific,   lingviistic  and  historical  knowledge   of 
the  East  Indian  archipelago,  and  liis  "  History  of  Java"   (first  edition,  1817). 
is  of  great  value.     Tlie  historical  part  !■<  Vol.  2,  and  the  appendix  contains 
important  d(icunients  of  the  period  of  British  rule. 
Zimmermann.  .-Mfred. — "  Die  Kolonuilpolitik  drr  Xirdrrlihidcr."     (Vol.  5  of  his 
"  Dir  curi'f'dischrji  Kolunioi,"  noted  above  uiuler  Colonization  in  Cieneral : 
Theory  and  lii^>tory.) 


410  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


GERMAN   COLONIES 

"Deutsche  Kolonialseitung.     Organ  der  Deutschen  Kolonialgesellschaft,  Redac' 
tcur,  Gustav  Mcineckc."     Berlin,  1883,  and  following. 
A  weekly  journal,  devoted  to  German  Colonial  interests. 
Fitzner,  Rudolf. — "  Deutsches  Kolonial-handbuch  nach  amtlichen  Quellen  bcar- 
beitet."    Berlin,  annual. 
This  annual  gives  under  each  colony  statistics  of  population,  trade,  finance, 
personnel,  etc.    The  issue  for  1901  (2  vols.,  2  erweiterte  AnAage),  has  more 
full  information  of  the  same  sort. 
Keller,  Albert  G. — "  Essays  in  Colonization."     Reprinted  from  the  Yale  Review. 
Excellent  brief  studies   of  the  recent  colonial   expansion   of  Germany  and 
Italy.     The  footnotes  contain  valuable  bibliographical  references. 
Meinecke,   Gustav. — "Die   deutschen   Kolonien  in   Wort   nnd   Bild:    Geschichte, 
Lander-  und   V olkerkunde ,  Tier-  und  Pflancenwelt,  Handels-  nnd   Wirt- 
schafts  verhdltnisse  der  Schutzgebiete  des  deutschen  Reiches."     Leipzig, 
1899. 
A    short    popular    account    of    German    colonization,    profusely    illustrated. 
There  is  a  short  sketch  of  the  early  colonial  enterprise  of  Brandenburg- 
Prussia  and  of  the  beginning  of  the  new  era.    Each  colony  is  then  described 
separately. 
Schmidt,    Rochus — "  Deutschland's    Kolonien,    Hire    Gestaltting.      Entzvickelung 
und  Hilfsquellcn."    2  vols.     Berlin,  1895. 
These  small  volumes  by  an   officer  in  the  colonial   service  in  East  Africa 
aim  to  diffuse  information  about  the  German  colonies  in  popular  form,  and 
thus  stimulate  popular  interest  in  the  colonization  movement.     There  is  an 
historical  and  descriptive  account  of  each  colony,  its  trade,  missions,  means 
of  defense,  economic  imdertakings  and  government.     Many  maps  and  illus- 
trations accompany  the  text. 


ITALIAN   COLONIES 

Keller,  Albert  G. — "Italian  Expansion  and  Colonies."     [In  Yale  Review,  August, 
1900.      Reprinted    in   his   "  Essays   in    Colonization."      Noted    above   under 
German  Colonies.] 
A  good  brief  narrative  of  the  Italian  colony  of  Eritrea.     The  footnotes  con- 
tain valuable  bibliographical  references. 

■ "Italy's   Experience   with   Colonies."      [In   "Essays   in   Colonization,"   noted 

above  under  Colonization  in  General:  Theory  and  History.] 


COLONIES   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

See  also  Spanish  Colonies  ante. 

Algue,  Jose. — "Atlas  de  Filipinos,  Coleccion  dc  jo  Mapas  Trahajados  por  dcline- 

antes  filipiitos  Bajo  la  Dircccion  del  P.  Jose  Algue,  S.  J.,  Director  del 

Observaiorio   de   Manila."      (U.    S.    Coast   and    Geodetic    Survey,    Special 

Publication  No.  3.)     Washington,  1900. 

The  best  atlas  of  the   Philippines.     The  preliminary  text  of  24  pages  is  in 

Englisli.     See  also  "  Jesuit  Fathers,"  below. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  411 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social   Science. — "  The  Foreigfn   Policy  of 
the  United  States,  Political  and  Commercial;  Addresses  and  Discussions 
at  the  Annual  Meeting,  April  7-8,  1899."     Philadelphia,  1889. 
A  strong  presentation  of  the  argument  for  and  against  imperialism  in  the 
following  addresses :    Theodore  S.  Woolsey  and  A.  Lawrence  Lowell,  "  The 
Government  of  Dependencies;"  E.  W.  HufTcutt,  "Constitutional  Aspect  of 
the  Government  of  Dependencies ;  "   W.  Alleyne   Ireland,  Talcott  Williams 
and  L.   S.   Rowe.  "  The  Government  of  Tropical   Colonies ; "   Carl   Schurz, 
"Militarism  and  Democracy;"  Worthington  C.  Ford,  Robert  T.  Hill,  John 
Ford,   W.    P.   Wilson   and   E.    R.   Johnson,   "  Commercial    Relations   of  the 
United  States  with  the  Far  East;"  John  Bassett  Moore,  "Political  Rela- 
tions of  the  United  States  with  the  Far  East ;  "  Wu  Ting  Fang,  "  China's 
Relations  with  the  West ;  "  Lindley  Miller  Keasby,  "  Political  Relations  of 
the  United  States  with  the  European  Powers  in  the  Far  East;"  Frederick 
Wells  Williams,  "  The  Real  Menace  of  Russian  Aggression." 
Jesuit    Fathers. — "El   archipelago    Filipino,    Colcccion    de    Datos   Gcographicos, 
Estadisticos,  Cronologicos,  y  Cicntificos,  Rclatiz'os  al  mismo,  Entrcsacados 
dc  Antcriorcs  Obras  u  Ohlcnidos  con  la  Propria  Obscrvacion  y  Estudio  par 
Algunos  Padres  dc  la  Mision  de  la  Companion  de  Jesus  en  Estas  Islas." 
2  vols.     Washington,  1900. 
A  valuable  compendium  of  facts  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  rule.     Accom- 
panied by  an  atlas.     Sec  above,  Algue,  Jose. 
Blackman,   William  Tremont. — "  The   Making  of  Hawaii :     A  Study  in  Evolu- 
tion."    New  York,  1899. 
A  sociological  study  of  Hawaiian  dev-elopment,  with  especial  reference  to 
the  aboriginal  population.     Not  a  narrative  history. 
Hart,  Albert  Bushnell. — "  Foundations  of  American   Foreign   Policy."     With  a 
Working  Bililiography.     New  York,  1901. 
An  historical  account  of  the  foreign  relations  of  the  L'''nited  States  in  bound- 
ary disputes,  military  expeditions   into   foreign  parts,   relations   with   Cuba, 
territorial    acquisitions    and    government,    the    Monroe    Doctrine,    etc.      The 
final  chapter  is  a  tentative  bibliography  of  American  diplomacy. 
Ireland,   Alleyne. — "American    Administration   in   the    Philippine   Islands."      [In 
Outlook,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  78,  pp.  1026.  1082.  Dec.  24  and  31.  1904.] 
Unfavorable  criticism  of  the  American  policy  in  the  Philippines,  which  the 
author  thinks  too  liberal  politically,  with  too  much  emphasis  on  education  as 
contrasted  with  economic  development. 
IMowry,  William  Augustus. — "  Territorial  Growth  of  the  United  States."     New 
York,  1902. 
A  popular  narrative  of  American  territorial  expansion  based  upon  secondary 
authorities.     In  the  main  trustworthy,  but  not  entirely  free  from  errors. 
Sawyer,  I'>ederick  H. — "  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines."     New  York  and 
London,  1900. 
A  descriptive  account  of  the  several  islands,  their  races,  customs  and  reli- 
gions,  with    a   brief   historical    sketch    and    much    statistical    material.      The 
author   resided   fourteen   years    in   the   islands    and    "  feels    that   no    English 
book  docs  justice  to  the  natives." 
Snow,  Alphcus   II. — •"' Tlie   .Admiiii-tration   of  Dependencies."     New   York,    1902. 
An  investigation  of  tlic  issues  of  the  American   revolution   from   the  incep- 
tion of  the  colonies,  and  ni  the  constitutional  clause  giving  Congress  power 
over  the  territory  of  tlie  I'nited    States,   also   of   .American,   Etiropean   and 
British  theory  and  practice  since  1787.     Tlie  authnr's  conclusion  is  that  the 
United  States  may  exercise  imperial  power  o\er  dependencies. 


412  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

U.  S.  Secretary  of  War. — "  Five  Years  in  the  War  Department  Following  the 
War   with    Spain,    1899-1903,   as    Shown   in   the    Annual    Reports    of    the 
Secretary  of  War."    Washington,  1904. 
In  this  volume  are  reprinted  the  annual  reports  of  the  Secretary  of  War 
(Elihu  Root),  omitting  many  appendices.     It  includes,  among  other  mat- 
ters,  the    official    history   of   the   military   government   of    Porto    Rico,   the 
military  and  civil  administration  of  Cuba  and  the  establishment  of  the  Cuban 
republic,  and  the  military  and  civil  administration  of  the  Philippines.     The 
appendices   here   reprinted   contain   important   documents,   among   them  the 
full  documentary  history  of  the  inauguration  of  the  Cuban  republic,  includ- 
ing the  Cuban  constitution  and  the  "  Piatt  amendment." 
Welsh,    Herbert. — "  The    Other    Man's    Country :    An    Appeal    to    Conscience." 
Philadelphia,  1900. 
An  historical  sketch  of  the  last  insurrection  of  the  Filipinos  against  Spain 
and  of  the  American  occupation   of  the   islands,   with   a   strong  argument 
against  the  policy  of  the  United  States  in  acquiring  the  Philippines  and  in 
suppressing  the  native  insurrection  therein. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


'A 


Aberdeen,   F.arl   of:    refuses   to   use   his 

power  for  party  purposes,  172 
Aboukir:  battle  of   (1799).  141 
Abraham,  Heights  of:  battle  of  (1759), 

118 
Acadia :     named,     81 ;     granted     to     De 

Monts,    82;    ceded    to    England,   85, 

107;  see  also  Nova  Scotia 
Acapulco:   founded,  51 
Adelaide,  South  Australia:  named,  190; 

settled,    193 
Aden :  history  of,  252 
Adowa:  battle  of  (1896),  300 
Afrikander  Bund :  rise  of,  232 
Aguinaldo,        Eniilio:        leads      uprising 

(1896),  314;  leads  Filipinos   (1898), 

315 ;  captured,  317 
Aix-la-Chapelle,    Treaty    of    (1748),   85, 

107 
Alaska:  history  of,  305 
Alaskan   Boundary  Dispute,  307 
Albany,  New  York:  founded,  64 
Albany,     Western     Australia :     founded, 

187 
Albemarle,  George  Kcppcl,  Earl  of:  his 

expedition  against   Havana,   118 
Alberta,    Province   of :    created    and    ad- 
mitted to  the  Canadian  union,  170 
Albuquerque,   Alfonso   de :   his   adminis- 
tration in  India,  41  ;  estimate  of,  46 
Alexander,    Sir    William:    see    Stirling, 

William  Alexander,  F.arl  of 
Algeria :  under  French  rule,  280 
Almeida,  Francisco  de :  first  Portuguese 

viceroy  of   India,  41 
Amboyna :     massacre     of     (1623),     59; 

taken  by  the  English   (18 10).  143 
Amherst,  Jeffrey,  Baron  :  his  expedition 

against   Lom'sburg.    117 
Amirantc :  taken  by   luigland,  263 
Andaman  Lslands :  sketch  of,  253 
Anglo-French    Agreement    (1904),    279, 

280,  28 1 

41. 


Angola:  tmder  Portuguese  rule,  298 

Annabon :   under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Anson,  George,  Lord  Anson :  his  at- 
tempt to  conquer  Peru  and  Chili, 
119 

Antigua:  English  policy  concerning, 
100 ;  made  the  seat  of  government 
for  the  Leeward  Islands,  245 

Archibald,  Adams  G. :  at  the  Quebec 
convention,   165 

Ardar:  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Aryans:  exodus  of  the,  5 

Ascension  Island :  sketch  of,  263 

Assumption :   founded,   92 

Auckland,  New  Zealand :  made  capital, 
212 

Australia:  settlement  of,  132;  surveyed 
and  named,    124 

Australian  Agricultural  Company:  or- 
ganized,  186 

Australian   Colonies   Act,    194 

Australian  Constitution  Act   C1900),  207 

.^•■-tralian  Government  Act   (1850),   198 

Azores,  The:  under  Portuguese  rule, 
299 


B 


Bacon,  Roger:  his  definition  of  planta- 
tion,  17 

Bagnt,  Sir  Charles:  governor  of  Can- 
ada, 158 

Pialianias :   govcrinncnt   of,   246 

I'.ahroin    Fland :   sketch  of.  j^t, 

I'.i.lb'ia,  \'a<co  Xunez  de :  discovers  the 
Pacific,   44 

I'aiida :  taken  by  the  English  (1810), 
1-^3 

Barhadocs  :  occupied  by  the  English.  Oy ; 
growth  of,  70;  linglish  policy  con- 
cerning,   lOi ;    hurricane    of    (1831), 

-W 
Barrington,  Sanmel :  captures  the  Island 
of  Guadeloupe,  118 


416 


INDEX 


Basutoland :  sketch  of,  259 

Batavia,  Java:  founded,  57;  massacre  of 
the  Chinese  (1740),  113;  taken  by 
the  English  (1811),  144,  288 

Bechuanaland    Protectorate :    sketch    of, 

259 

Rerbice :  taken  by  the  English,   143 

Berlin  Decree    (1806),   142 

Bermudas :  history  of,  249 

Bcsner,  Baron  de :  attempts  to  found 
colony  in  Guiana,   121 

Biacnabate,  Treaty  of  (1897),  314 

Bismarck  Archipelago :  annexed  to  Ger- 
many, 302 

Black  Rock:  taken  by  the  British 
(i8i3),_  154 

Bloemfontein :  founded,  226 ;  occupied 
by  the  British   (1900),  233 

Boer  War,  First,  229 

Boer  War,  Second,  232 

Bond,  Robert:  ministry  of,  178 

Bonifacio,  Andres :  leads  uprising 
(1896),  314 

Boscawen,  Edward :  his  expedition 
against  Louisburg,  117 

Bosch,  Lieutenant  General  Van  den :  his 
administration  as  governor  of  Java, 
292 

Boston  Tea  Party,   127 

Botany  Bay:  attempt  to  form  a  penal 
colony  at,  182 

Bourbon,  Island  of :  see  Reunion 

Bourke,  Sir  Richard:  his  administration 
as  governor  of  New  South  Wales, 
185,  189 

Braddock,  Edward :  his  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne,  117 

Brazil:  discovered,  43;  war  between  the 
Dutch  and  Portuguese  in,  60;  con- 
dition of  the  natives  under  Spanish 
conquest,  91 ;  Jesuits  expelled  from, 
98;  growth  of,  105 

Breda,  Peace  of  (1667),  76,  87 

Brisbane,  Sir  Thomas :  governor  of  New 
South   Wales.    186 

Brisbane,  Queensland:  founded,  187; 
growth  of,   196 

Briti'-h  Columbia:  admitted  to  Canadian 
union,   168;  skctcli  of,  170 

British  Honduras:  sec  Honduras,  Brit- 
ish 

British  Kaffraria :  annexed  to  the  Cape, 
224 


British  North  America  Act,  The  (1867), 
167 

British  North  Borneo  Company:  char- 
tered, 255 

British  South  Africa  Company:  organ- 
ized,  230 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac:  lieutenant  governor 
of  Upper  Canada,  154 

Bronkhorst  Spruit:  battle  of  (1880), 
230 

Brooke,  Sir  Charles:  rajah  of  Sarawak, 

255 
Brooke,  Sir  James :  sketch  of,  254 
Brooke,  John  R. :  his  administration  in 

Cuba,  329 
Brown,  George :  at  the  Quebec  conven- 
tion, 165 
Brunei :    made   a   protectorate   of   Great 

Britain,  255 
Buenos    Ayres:    founded,    92;    occupied 

by  the  British   (1806),  30,  143 
Buffalo:  taken  by  the  British  (1813),  154 
Buller,     Sir     Redvers :     relieves     Lady- 
smith,  233 
Burmah,  British:  annexation  of,  251 
Burgoyne,   John:    defeated   at   Saratoga, 

128 
Burra-Burra  Mines:  discovered,  195 
Busby,   James :   appointed   resident  mag- 
istrate in  New  Zealand,  211 


Cabot,  John :  voyages  and  discoveries 
of,  49 

Cabot,  Sebastian :  enters  the  Spanish 
service,  92 

Cabral.  Pedro  Alvarcs :  discovers  Bra- 
zil, 43 

Calicut :  taken  by  the  Dutch,  61 

Cambodia :     under     French    protection, 

273 

Cameroons :   see  Kamerun 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin :  his  administration 
as  governor  of  New  Brunswick,   163 

Canada:  work  of  the  Jesuits  in,  97; 
ceded  to  England,  120;  effect  of  the 
American  Revolution  on,  131;  Eng- 
lish rule  in,  149;  trade  thrown  open 
to  the  world,  159;  see  also  New 
France 


INDEX 


417 


Canadian  Pacific  Railways:  built,  175 

Cananor :  taken  by  the  Dutch,  61 

Canary  Islands:  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Candy,  Ceylon :  taken  by  the  English 
(1815),  144 

Canterbury,  New  Zealand:  founded,  213 

Cap  Francois :  taken  by  the  French 
(1801),  140 

Cape  Breton  Island:  founded,  49; 
named,  81 ;  ceded  to  the  English,  87 

Cape  Colony:  founded,  62;  surrenders 
to  the  British,  139;  finally  occupied 
by  the  English  (1806),  143,  221; 
government  of,  220,  223 

Cape  of  Good  Hope :  circumnavigated 
by  the  Phoenicians,  g;  Vasco  da 
Gama  doubles  the,  39 

Cape  San  Juan :  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Cape  Town:  growth  of,  218 

Cape  Verde  Islands :  under  Portuguese 
rule,  298 

Carolina :  slavery  conditions  in,  75 

Caroline  Islands :  purchased  by  Ger- 
many, 302 

Carthage:  account  of,  15,  21 

Cartier,  George  fitienne :  at  the  Quebec 
convention,  165 

Cartier,  Jacques:  voyages  of,  49.  81 

Castro,  John  de :  defeats  the  King  of 
Cambay,  47 

Cathcart:  made  governor  of  Canada, 
158 

Cayenne :  settled,  87 ;  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish, 143 

Ccbu :    occupied    by    Americans    (1899), 

317 
Cervcra   y   Topetc,    Pascual :    defeat   of, 

329 

Cespedes,  Carlos  Manuel  de :  leads  Cu- 
ban insurrection,  327 

Cetiwayo,  King  of  the  Zulus:  captured 
by  the  English,  229 

Ceylon:  under  Dutch  rule,  113;  surren- 
ders to  the  British.  130:  conquest 
completed  (1815),  144:  history  of, 
250 

Chamberlain,  Joseph:  opposes  Australian 
Constitution,   207 

Chaniplain.  Samuel  de :  makes  a  settle- 
ment in  America.  Si 

Ciiarlcs  V.  Holy  Roman  I-'mperor:  in- 
troduces tlie  New  Laws,  45 ;  colo- 
nial policy  of,  50 


Charles  IT,  King  of  England :  taxes  col- 
onics, 89 

Charlottetown  Conference   (1861),  164 

Chile:  work  of  the  Jesuits  in,  97 

Choiseul  (Choisenl-Amboise),  fitiennc 
FraiiQois,  Duke  de :  intrigues  against 
England,  125 

Christchurch,  New  Zealand :  founded, 
213 

Christianity :  in  Europe,  g ;  among  the 
natives  of  South  America,  92;  intro- 
duced into  Japan,  96;  introduced  in 
the  South  Seas,  130;  in  Madagas- 
car, 279 

Christophe :  leads  resistance  to  French, 
140 

Clark,  William :  explorations  of,   130 

Clarkson,  Thomas :  his  crusade  against 
slave-trade,  238 

Clear-grits :  policy  of,  160 

Cleveland,  Grover,  President  of  the 
United  States :  his  relations  with 
Hawaii,  310 

Cochin  :  taken  by  the  Dutch,  61 ;  surren- 
ders to  the  British,  139 

Cochin-China :  formed,  273 

Code  Noir   (1685),  75 

Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste:  progress  of  the 
French  West  Indies  under,  "jz;  colo- 
nial polic}'  of,  78 

Colchrook,  Sir  William:  his  administra- 
tion as  deputy  governor  of  New 
Ikunswick,   163 

Coles.  Gc(irge :  at  the  Quebec  conven- 
tinn,   165 

Colignv.  Gaspard  de :  colonial  schemes 
of.  Si 

Colley.  Sir  George:  death  of.  230 

Colombo:   Portuguese  driven   from.  61 

Colonies  of  the  World.  History  of:  old 
luirope  and  new  Europe.  3;  Portu- 
guese and  Spanish  coloiu'es,  33;  the 
Dutch  and  fuiglish  settlement-.  55; 
the  plaiUatious.  66;  New  I'rance  and 
Now  iMigland.  81  :  the  mi^^ions.  91 ; 
■  tl;e  mi(M!e  period  in  colonial  his- 
tory. 00:  the  period  of  English  su- 
premacy. T17:  the  American  Revo- 
hnioii.  IJ7:  the  Freucli  Revolution. 
13(1;  Canada  ;ui(l  Xewf'VLUnlIand. 
140;  l'riti>h  colonies  in  the  South 
Seas.  180:  South  Africa,  21S;  Brit- 
ish  dependencies.   23; ;   colonial  em- 


418 


INDEX 


pire  of  France,  268;  the  Dutch  colo- 
nial empire,  285;  minor  European 
possessions,  297;  colonies  and  de- 
pendencies of  the  United  States, 
304;  the  outlook,  334 

Columbus,  Christopher:  career  of,  36 

Comoro  Island :  placed  under  the  gov- 
ernor of  Madagascar,  279 

Concepcion :  founded,  50 

Congo  Free  State:  description  of,  299 

Constitution,  Australian,  207 

Constitution,  Canadian,  165 

Constitutions,  New  Zealand:  (1852), 
213;  (1875),  214 

Continental  Congress,  First:  assembled, 
127 

Cook,  James :  career  of,  123 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre:  defeats  Lally,  119 

Cornish,  Sir  Samuel :  his  expedition 
against  Manila,  120 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  Lord:  surrenders 
at  Yorktown,  128 

Corsico:  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Cortez,  Ferdinand:  makes  himself  mas- 
ter of  Mexico,  43 ;  cost  of  his  con- 
quest of  Mexico,  91 

Costa,  Edward  da:  aids  Jesuits  in  Bra- 
zil, 92 

Courbet,  Admiral :  bombards  Hue,  273 

Covilhao,  Pedro  da:  his  journey  to  In- 
dia and  Abyssinia,  38 

Craig,  Sir  James:  appointed  governor 
of  Canada,  153 

Cromwell,  Oliver:  aids  West  Indies,  70 

Crown  Land  Sales  Act  (1842):  passed, 
192;  repealed,  199 

Crusades :  influence  of,  14 

Cuba :  growth  of,  "jz  \  wins  independ- 
ence, 323 ;  history  of,  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  325 

Culture  System  of  the  Dutch  East  In- 
dies, 289 

Curasao:  under  Dutch  rule,  73;  govern- 
ment of,  286 

Cyprus :  history  of,  253 ;  government  of, 
254 


D 


Daedcl";,   Herman   Willcm :   his   work   in 

Java,  288 
Dahomey:  description  of,  281 


Daman :  under  Portugtiese  rule,  298 

Darling,  Sir  Ralph :  conditions  in  Aus- 
tralia under,  186 

Davis,  George  Whitefield :  made  gov- 
ernor of  canal  zone,  333 

Definitive  Treaty  (1763),  120 

Dekker,  Edouard  Douwes:  aids  reform 
movement  for  Dutch  East  Indies, 
294 

Demerara:  taken  by  the  English,   143 

Dessalines,  Jean  Jacques :  leads  war 
against  French,  140;  proclaimed  em- 
peror of  Hayti,  141 

Detroit:  taken  by  the  English  (1812), 
154 

Dewey,  George:  at  battle  of  Manila,  315 

Diaz :  leads  Cuban  insurrection,  327 

Diego  Suarez :  ceded  to  France,  278 

Dipa  Negara :  revolt  of,  288 

Diu  :  under  Portuguese  rule,  298 

Dominica:  ceded  to  England,  120; 
seized  by  France   (1778),   128 

Drake,  Sir  Francis :  his  voyage  to  the 
East  Indies,  58 

Draper,  Sir  William:  his  expedition 
agaiiTSt  Manila,  120 

Dupleix,  Joseph  Frangois,  Marquis  de: 
his  career  in  India,  115;  recalled 
from  India,  119 

Duquesne  Fort:  Braddock's  expedition 
against,   117 

Durham,  John  George  Lambton,  Earl 
of:  his  mission  to  Canada,   156 

Dutch  Trading  Company:  chartered,  291 


East  India  Company,  British :  chartered, 

59 ;  growth  of,  62 ;  success  of,  102 
East  India  Company,  Danish:   founded, 

lOI 

East  India  Company,  Dutch :  founded, 
56;  decline  of,  102;  importance  of, 
121 ;  dissolved,  141 ;  career  of,  286 

East  India  Company,  French:  chartered, 
78,  114 

East  India  Company',  Swedish :  founded, 

lOI 

East  Indies,  Dutch:  description  of,  286 
Egypt :  government  of,  262 
Electoral  Reform  Act  in  Jamaica,  244 


INDEX 


419 


Elgin,  James  Bruce,  Earl  of:  his  admin- 
istration as  governor  of  Canada, 
158,  162 

Elobey :  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Emmanuel  (1)  the  Great,  King  of  Por- 
tugal :  relation  of  Indian  sovereigns 
to,  39 

Eritrea :  description  of,  300 

Esnambuc,  d' :  makes  settlements  in  the 
West  Indies,  68 

Essequibo:  taken  by  the  English,  143 

Estrees,  Jean,  Count  d' :  occupies  St. 
Lucia  and  St.  Vincent,  76 

Euler,  Leonhard :  aids  nautical  science, 
122 

Eureka:  insurrection  in  (1854),  202 


Falkland,    Lord :    his    administration    as 

governor  of  New  Brunswick,  163 
Falkland  Islands :  history  of,  249 
Federated  Malay  States:  history  of,  252 
Ferdinand    (V)    the    Catholic,    King    of 
Spain:  patronizes  Columbus,  36;  his 
relations  with  the  church  in  the  col- 
onies, 45; 
Fernando  Po :  under  Spanish  rule,  299 
Fiji   Islands:   British  take  possession  of 

(1874),  217;  government  of,  256 
Florida  :   Huguenots  attempt  to  found  a 
colony    in,    82;    ceded    to    England 
(1763),   104,    120;   restored  to  Spain 
(1783),     107,     128;     ceded     to     the 
United  States   (1S19),  304 
Formosa  :  part  of,  seized  by  iM'ance,  273 
Vox,  Cicor!.;e :   denounces   ski\er\',    130 
Francis  I.  King  of  b^rance  :  i;Uerc-te<l  in 

disro\'rries   in   Anu-rica,  8r 
Franklin.    Ik'ujaniin:    honors    Cowk.    124 

note 
Frazer,  Simon:  exploratioiT^  cf,   tj^) 
Freemautle,  Port  of:  founded.  1S7 
French   Congo:   description  of,  jSi 
French   West    .Xfrica:   present   condition 

of,  281 
Frcre,    Sir    Bartle :    his    requirements    in 

Zululand,  229 
Frobisher,  .Martin  :   attempt-  to  discover 

the  northwest  pa- sage.  58 
Funston,  Fred:  ca[)ture--  Agui'KiIuo.  307 


Gambia:  government  of,  258 
Gambia  Islands :  under  French  rule,  276 
Gama,  Vasco  da :  voyage  of,  39 
Garnier,    Lieutenant:    his    campaign    in 

Tonkin,  273 
Gawler,  George :  governor  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, 193 
George,     Fort :     taken    by    the     French 

(1757),   118 
Georgia,  State  of:  founded,  85;  growth 

of,   109 
German  East  Africa:  description  of,  301 
German  West  Africa:  description  of,  300 
Gibraltar:    history   of,  253;    government 

of,  254 
Gilbert,    Sir   Humphrey:    his   expedition 

to  America,  84 
Cipps,    Sir   George:    governor   of    New 

South   Wales,  210 
Goa:  under  Portuguese  rule,  298 
Godoy,   Manuel   de :   wins   his   sobriquet, 

140 
Gorgas,    William    C. :    aids    in    stamping 

out  yellow  fever  in  Cuba,  329 
Gourgues,    Dominique    de :    his    revenge 

on  the  Spaniards,  82 
Grenada:  ceded  to  England,  120;  seized 

by   France    (1778),    128;    becomes    a 

crown  colony,  246 
Grenadines :  ceded  to  England,  120 
Grey,  Lord :  sends  convicts  to  South  Af- 
rica, 223 
Grey.    Sir    George:    governor    of    South 

Australia,    105:    made    governor    of 

New   Ze;ilau(],  212 :   his  second  term 

of  oltiee  in  Xew  Zealand,  215;  urges 

a  United  South  Africa.  22S 
Grifina-Iaiid-west :   annexed  bv  the  Eng- 

li-li,  2-7 
Guadeloupe:      taken      by     the      luigHsh 

(1750),    118;    taken   by   the    luiglish 

( iSio),   143 
Guam  (Gualiau)  :  history  of,  321 
(iuiiiua    (Gnayana)  :    settlement    of,    ^j ; 

surrender-  to  the  Briti-h.  139 
Guiana,   Brili^li :  hi-tory  of,  247 
Guiana.    Dutch:    history   of,   285 
Guiana,    b'rench :    attempts    to    colonize, 

121 
Gui.mea.  French:  sketch  of,  281 
Gui:uiea.  Portuguese:  description  of,  29S 


420 


INDEX 


Gunter,  Edmund:  applies  logarithms  to 
nautical  calculations,  122 


H 


Hall :  his  expedition  against  Canada,  154 

Halley,  Edmund:  aids  nautical  science, 
122 

Hanoi :  taken  by  the  French,  273 ;  made 
capital  of  Indo-China,  274 

Hanseatic  League :  power  of,  15 

Hanway,  Jonas :  his  efforts  in  behalf  of 
slaves,  130 

Hargraves,  Edward  Hammond :  discov- 
ers gold  in  Australia,  201 

Harrison,  John:  aids  nautical  science, 
123 

Harvey,  Sir  John :  makes  concessions  to 
the  legislature  of  New  Brunswick, 
163 

Havana,  Cuba :  taken  by  the  English 
(1762),  118;  massacres  of  (1869), 
327 

Hawaiian  Islands:  history  of,  307 

Hawke's  Bay,  New  Zealand :  formed, 
213 

Hay-Herran  Treaty  (1903),  332 

Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty   (1901),  331 

Hayti:  becomes  independent,  139; 
French  expedition  against,  140 

Head,  Sir  Edmund:  governor  of  Can- 
ada, 161 

Hebrews :  influence  of,  8 

Henry  IV,  King  of  France:  grants  Aca- 
dia to  De  Monts,  82 

I  k-nry  the  Navigator,  Duke  of  Viseo: 
career  of,  36 

Ilol)art   Conference,  The   (1895),  204 

Hobart,  Van  Diemen's  Land:  founded, 
188 

Hobson,  Captain :  appointed  lieutenant 
governor  of  New  Zealand,  211 

Hodge :  his  cruelty  toward  his  slaves, 
240 

Hocvell,  Baron  von:  tells  Dutch  gov- 
ernment of  affairs  in  Java,  293 

Hollander.  Jacob  TT. :  devises  system  of 
taxation   for   I'orto  Rico,  324 

Hondura-.  lirilish:  l)ecomfs  a  crown 
coll  my,    120;   government  of,  245 

Hongi    Hika:    sketrh   of,  210 

Hong-Kong:  ^ktlch  of,  255 


Hopetoun,  Earl  of:  made  governor  gen- 
eral of  Australia,  207 
Horn,  Van :  leads  pirates,  68 
Houtman,  Cornelius :  sketch  of,  56 
Hudson,  Henry:  explorations  of,  63 
Hudson    Bay    Company:    sketch    of,   86, 

168 
Hue:  bombardment  of  (1883),  273 
Hugues,     Victor :     expels     the     English 

from  Guadeloupe,  268 
Humboldt,    Baron    Alexander    Friedrich 
Heinrich    von :    forbidden    to    enter 
Brazil,  27 
Hyder  Ali  Khan:  at  war  with  the  Eng- 
lish, 120 


I,  J 

Iberville,  Pierre  Lemoyne,  Sieur  d' :  at- 
tempts to  make  a  French  settlement 
in  America,  85 

Iloilo:    occupied   by   Americans    (1899), 

317 
Incas :  description  of,  45 
India:  Europe's  trade  with,  11;  the  Por- 
tuguese in,  39;  work  of  the  Jesuits 
in,  97;  British  conquest  of,  144 
Indians :  treatment  of,  17 
Indo-China :  French  rule  in,  272 
Ingago:  battle  of  (1880),  230 
Intercolonial  Railway:  built,  176 
Isabella   I,  Queen   of   Spain:   patronizes 

Columbus,  36 
Isandlana:  battle  of  (1879),  229 
Ivory  Coast:  description  of,  281 
Jamaica:  taken  by  the  English,  71;  re- 
volt of  the  Maroons,   139;   increase 
in  its  produce,  237;  negro  insurrec- 
tion   (1831),    240;    decline   of,    241; 
negro  insurrection  (1865),  245 
James  I,  King  of  England :  grants  Nova 
Scotia  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  83 
James  II,  King  of  England :  taxes  colo- 
nies, 89 
Jameson.  Leandcr  S. :  raid  of.  231 
Jamestown,  Virginia:  description  of,  24; 

settled,  84  note 
Janssens :  governor  of  Cape  Colony,  220 
Java :  settled  by  the  Dutch,  56 ;  con- 
quered by  the  Dutch,  113;  taken  by 
tlie  English  (1811),  144;  returned 
to  Holland,  144;  description  of,  286 


INDEX 


4^1 


Jews :  settle  in  Brazil,  47 ;  establish  sugar 

plantations  in  Brazil,  92 
Jesuits:  value  of  their  services,  48;  their 

work    in    Brazil,   92;    their    work   in 

South  America,  93;   suppression  of, 

98 
Johannesburg:    built,    231;    occupied    by 

the  Britisli   (1900),  233 
John  II,  King  of  Portugal:  trade  policy 

of,     35;     dispatches     Covilhao     and 

Paiva,  38 
John  III,  King  of  Portugal :  his  colonial 

policy,  48 
John    Maurice,    Prince   of    Nassau :    his 

career  in  Brazil,  60 
Johnson :   his  work  among  the  convicts 

in  New  South  Wales,  183 
Jolo:  occupied  by  Americans  (1899),  317 


K,  L 

Kaffirs:  description  of.  221 

Kalakaua,  King  of  Hawaii:  reign  of.  309 

Kamchameha     IV,     King     of     Hawaii : 

death  of,  309 
Kamenm :  description  of.  300 
Kapunda  Mines :   sketch  of.   195 
Kiau-Chau :  seized  by  Germany    (1897), 

301 
Kidd,  Captain  William :  death  of,  69 
Kimberley :  siege  of  (1900).  233 
Kingston :      made     capital      of      Canada 

(1840).  158 
Kirk.   Sir  David:  his  campaiG;n  in   Can- 
ada, 83 
Kitchener,     Horatio     IlerluTt,     Viscount 
Kitchener    of     Khartum:     his    cam- 
paigns in   South  Africa,  233 
Klondike :  opening  of,  307 
Kouron:  failure  of,   I2T 
Kroonstad    Proclamation,    Tlie     (1000). 

233 
Kwang-Chau,  Bay  of:  leased  to  Franco, 

274 

Labrador:  becomes  England's  prnpcrtv. 
86 

Labuan,  Island  of:  made  a  Ikiti-h  col- 
ony, 254 

Laccadive  Islands  :  sketch  of.  253 

Ladrone  Islands:  purclia<ed  ity  Ger- 
many, 302 

Ladysmith :   siege  of    (igoo).  233 


Lagos :  sketch  of,  257 

Laing's  Neck:  battle  of  (1880),  230 

Lally,  Thomas  Arthur,  Count  de :  his 
career  in  India,  119 

Lancaster,  John  of:  his  administration 
as  governor  of  Brazil,  105 

Laos :  under  French  rule,  273 

La  Perouse :  voyages  of,  129 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  dc :  ex- 
plorations of,  85 

Las  Casas,  Bishop  of  Chiapa :  aids  na- 
tives in  Mexico,  45 

Latin  Nations:  characteristics  of,  7,  25 

Lannceston,  Van  Diemen's  Land: 
founded,  188 

Laurier,  Sir  Wilfrid :  wins  victory  for 
Liberals,   173 

Lazear,  Jesse  W. :  heroism  of,  330 

Leclerc,  Victor  Emmanuel :  his  expedi- 
tion to  Santo  Domingo,  140 

Leeward  Islands :  government  of,  245 ; 
under  French  rule.  276 

Lewis,  Meriwether :  explorations  of,  130 

Lexington:  battle  of   (1775).   127 

Liliuokalani,  Queen  of  Hawaii :  reign  of, 
310 

Lobengula,  King  of  Matabeleland  :  con- 
cludes treaty  with  the  English.  230 

Locke,  John :  directs  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  Connncrce,  8g 

Logoland  :  description  of,  300 

London  Convention   (1884),  230 

Lopez.  Narcisso:  his  fdibustering  expe- 
dition to  Cuba,  Tt2y 

Los  Islands:  given  to  l-'rance,  281 

Loni>1)i'rg:  captured  by  the  English 
(  174?),   107:    (1757).   117 

L(iui~i;ui:i :  ceded  to  the  United  States, 
130.   13(1.  260.  30} 

Lunalik),  King  of  Hawaii:  reign  of,  309 


M 


'Macao :   under  Portuguese  rule.  298 

Macartluir,  John:  his  work  for  Aus- 
tralia.  185 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  A. :  at  t'lc  Quebec 
conwntion.  1(15;  leads  cc'iiscrsative 
party.   167,   174 

Macquairr.  T.achlan  :  made  gnvrriior  of 
New   South   Wales,   1S4 


423 


INDEX 


Mackenzie,  Sir  Alexander:  explorations 

of,  129 
M'Nab,   Sir  Allan:  leader  of  the  Con- 
servative Party,  157 
Madagascar:    French    attempts   to   colo- 
nize, 78;  French  protectorate  estab- 
lished, 278 
Madeira :  under  Portuguese  rule,  299 
Madura,  Island  of:  description  of,  286 
Madras:  taken  by  the  French,  115 
IMafeking:  siege  of  (1900),  233 
Magellan,  Ferdinand :  names  the  Pacific 

Ocean,  44  note;  voyage  of,  51 
Maine:  destruction  of,  328 
Maitland,    Sir   Peregrine :   his   campaign 

in  Hayti,  138 
Majuba  Hill:  battle  of  (1881),  230 
Malacca:    siege   of    (1511),   42;    surren- 
ders   to    the    British     (1795),    139, 

251 
Malta:    taken    by    the    English    (1800) 
141 ;  history  of,  253 ;  government  of, 

254        _ 

Malta,  Knights  of:  found  colonies  in 
the  West  Indies,  71 

Manila:  built,  51;  taken  by  the  English 
(1762),  120;  made  a  free  port.  133; 
captured  by  the  Americans  (1898), 
316 

Manila  Bay:  battle  of  (1898),  315 

Manitoba,  Province  of:  created,  169 

Marchand,  Jean  Baptiste :  his  expedition 
to  Fashoda,  282 

Marianne  Islands :  purchased  by  Ger- 
many, 302 

]Marlborough,  New  Zealand :  formed,  213 

Marquesas  Islands:  annexed  by  France 
(1842),  276 

Marsden,  Dr. :  his  work  in  New  Zea- 
land, 210 

I^larshall  Islands :  annexed  to  Germany, 
302 

Martinique:  French  policy  concerning, 
100;  taken  by  the  British  (1762), 
118;   (1810),  143 

Masulipatam:  taken  by  the  English 
(1761),  120 

Matabeleland :  declared  to  be  within  the 
British  sphere,  230 

Mauritius:  French  policy  concerning, 
100;  obtained  by  France,  115;  his- 
tory of,  263 

!Mayotte,  Island  of:  France  takes  posses- 


sion of,  278;  placed  under  the  gov- 
ernor of  Madagascar,  279 

Melbourne :  founded,  189 ;  growth  of, 
194 

Melbourne  Conference,  The  (1890),  203 

Mercator,  Gerard :  invents  a  method  for 
making  accurate  charts,  122 

Metcalfe,  Charles  Theophilus :  his  ad- 
ministration as  governor  of  Can- 
ada, 158,  162 

Methuen  Treaty  (1703),  106 

Mexico :  inhabitants  of,  7 ;  discovered, 
43 ;  cost  of  Cortez's  conquest,  91 

Miquelon :  history  of,  268 

Milan  Decree  (1807),  142 

Miles,  Nelson  Appleton :  his  campaign 
in  Cuba,  323 

Milner,  Sir  Alfred :  his  negotiations 
with  President  Kriiger,  232 

Minas  Geraes :  organized,  105 ;  insurrec- 
tion of,  106 

Mohammed  Ali  Khan :  made  Nabob  of 
Arcot,   119 

Moluccas :  conquered  by  the  Dutch 
(1607),  57 

Monck,  Viscount:  made  governor  of 
Canada,  161 

Monckton,  Robert :  takes  Martinique, 
118 

Money,  J.  W.  B. :  influences  thought 
concerning  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
290 

Montcalm,  Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de : 
at  the  battle  of  Quebec,  118 

Mont  Pelee:  eruption  of  (1902),  271 

Montreal :  founded,  82 ;  taken  by  the 
English  (1760),  118;  made  seat  of 
Canadian  government,   158 

Monts,  Pierre  de :  receives  grant  of 
Acadia,  83 

]\Ioret  Law  (1870),  327 

Morgan,  Sir  Henry:  captures  Porto 
Bcllo  and   Panama,  69 

Moriscoes :   expelled  from   Spain,  104 

Munster,  Treaty  of  (1648),  114 


N 


Napier,   Sir  George :   governor  of  Cape 

Colony,  223 
Napicrville:  l)attle  of  (1837),  IS6 
Napoleon    (i)    Bonaparte,    Emperor    of 


INDEX 


423 


the  French :  his  expedition  to 
Egypt,  141;  his  canipaiji^n  in  the 
Spanish  Peninsnla,  142;  his  Eastern 
schemes,  268 

Nassau :  seat  of  government  for  the  Ba- 
hamas, 246 

Natal :  early  history  of,  225 

Navigation,  Act  of:  the  primitive,  16; 
(1651),  22;  its  effect  on  the  West 
Indies,  70 

Nechos,  King  of  Egypt :  expedition  of, 
9  note 

Nelson,  New  Zealand:  settled,  212 

New  Amsterdam :  see  New  York  City 

New  Brunswick :  contests  between  the 
governor  and  the   legislature,    163 

New      Caledonia :      taken      by      France 

(1853),  275 
New  England:  settlement  of,  81 
New  France:  named,  49;  history  of,  81; 

growth  of,  106;  see  also  Canada 
New  Granada  :  created,  104 
New     Guinea :     British     possessions     in, 

217;   northeastern  part   of,   annexed 

by  Germany,  302 
New  Guinea,  British :  history  of,  256 
New  Holland :  see  Australia 
New  Laws :  introduced,  45 
New  Orange:  see  Albany 
New  Orleans  :  ceded  to  Spain,  120 
New    Plymouth,    New    Zealand :    settled, 

212;  see  also  Taranaki 
New    South    Wales :    receives    its    name, 

181;  government  of,  T97;  ratifies  the 

new   Constitution    (1899),  206 
New  York  City :   founded.  64 
New   Zealand:    discovered,    123;    history 

of.  210 
New  Zealand  Company:  chartered.  212; 

dissolved,  213 
Newcastle,  New  South  Wales  :  foiuided. 

184 
Newfoundland:    discovered,    49;    settled, 

49;  becomes  lingland's  property,  86; 

luuler   I'.nglish  rule,   149;   lii-tury  (jf, 

177 
Niagara:    taken   by   the    Briti.-ii    (1S13), 

154 

Nicobar  Islands:  skrlcli  cf.  2S^ 
Nile:   battle  of  the    (iJfxS),    141 
Niiu't\-t\vo  Resolutions.   155 
Nobrega.     F.nunantiel    de :    his    work    in 
Brazil,  92 


Norfolk  Island,  Australia:  convict  set- 
tlement established  at,   132 

North  Borneo  Company,  British :  see 
British    North    Borneo   Company 

Northwest  Company :  sketch  of,  168 

Nossi  Be:  France  takes  possession  of, 
278 

Nova  Scotia :  granted  to  Sir  William 
Alexander,  83 ;  ceded  to  England, 
120;  history  of,  161;  see  also  Acadia 

Nymwegen,  Peace  of  (1678-1679),  64,  72 


O,  P 

Ontario,  Province  of :  created,  167 
Orange.  Fort :  see  Albany 
Orange   River   Colony:   settled,  224;   or- 
ganized,   226;    declared    annexed    to 
British  empire,  233 
Ornuiz:  reduced  by  .Mbuquerque,  42 
Oswego,     New     York :     taken     by     the 

French    (1757),   118 
Otago.  New  Zealand:  founded.  213 
Otis,  Elwell  Stephen  :  connnands  Amer- 
ican forces  in  the  Philippines.  316 
Ottawa :   made  capital  of  Canada,   161 
Paardeberg:  battle  of   (1900).  233 
Pa.i'o  Pago :  ceded  to  the  United  States, 

3-^x 
Paiva  (Paj-va),  .\lfonso  de :  journev  of, 

Panama:   taken  by  Morgan,  69;   history 

of,  3.11 
Paraguay:   supremacy  of  the  Jesuits   in, 

95  :  supi)res-ion  of  the  Jesuits  in,  98 
Paris.   Treaties   df:    (i7C>3),   76;    (1783), 

107.  1 28;   ( 1S15).  221 
P;u-k.  Mnugo:  his  work  in  Africa,  130 
P;irkes,    Sir    lleiiry:    suggests   the    Mel- 
bourne c.infert'ucc,  203 
P;itter-on:  hi^  work  in  Africa,  130 
Paiih"^!'^ :   sketch  of,  04 
IVIew    l>lau(ls:   purchased   by   Germany, 

302 
Peiui,      Sir      William  :      his      expedition 

ai;aiu<t   .Santo  Domingo.  71 
Peini.  \\"iili;mi:  his  treatment  oi  the  In- 

di;in.-.   19 
Penn-yh  ;tni:i.   I^tate  of:   organization  of. 

10;     IT. 'Wth     of.    as    a     colony.    85; 

growth  ui  its  commerce,  iu8;  growth 


424 


INDEX 


of  its  population,  log;  Quakers 
emancipate  their  slaves,  130 

Perth,  Western  Australia:  founded,  187 

Peru :  early  inhabitants  of,  17 ;  discov- 
ered, 44;  work  of  the  Jesuits  in,  97; 
revolt  of  (1780),  133 

Philadelphia :  First  Continental  Con- 
gress meets,  127 

Philip,  Arthur :  his  work  in  Australia, 
132;  commands  founding  of  penal 
colony  in  Australia,  182 

Philippine  Company,  Spanish :  failure 
of,  102 

Philippine  Islands:  discovered,  51;  his- 
tory of,  311 

Philippine  Islands  under  American  Rule, 
The,  353 

Philippines  Civil  Government  Act 
(1902),  319 

Phoenicians:  influence  of,  8;  colonization 
of,  15 

Pichegru,  Charles :  his  campaign  in  the 
Netherlands,  139 

Pinzon,  Vicente  Yanez :  his  explorations 
in  South  America,  43 

Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham :  esti- 
mate of,  118 

Pizarro,  Francis :  his  conquest  of  Peru, 

45 

Placido :  death  of,  327 

Plaisance:  ceded  to  the  English,  86 

Plata  River,  Viceroyalty  of  the:  created, 
104 

Piatt  Amendment  (1901),  330 

Plattslnirf,^:  battle  of   (1814).  154 

Plymouth,  Massachusetts :  settled,  84 
note 

Pocock,  Sir  George:  takes  Havana,  118 

Poincy,  de :  his  administration  as  gov- 
ernor in  the  West  Indies.  71 

Pombal,  Sebastiao,  Jose  de  Carvalho  e 
Mello,  Marquis  of:  his  hostile  policy 
toward  the  Jesuits,  97 

Pondicherry :  obtained  by  the  French 
fi668;,  114;  besieged  by  the  Eng- 
lisli  (1748).  115;  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish (1761),  119;  returned'  to  France 
(1S02),  144 

Popham,  Sir  Ilorne  Riggs :  occupies 
I'ufiins  Ayrcs,  143 

Port-an- Prince:  taken  by  the  French 
( iHcii ),  140 

Port   Durban:   founded,  225 


Port  of  Freemantle :  founded,  187 

Port  Phillip:  growth  of,  194 

Port  Royal,  Jamaica:  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  237 

Port  Victoria,  Seychelles:  description  of, 
263 

Porto  Bello:  taken  by  Morgan,  6g 

Porto  Rico:  early  conditions  in,  y^)  his- 
tory  of,   in   the   nineteenth   century, 

323 

Portroyal,  Nova  Scotia :  founded,  83 

Portuguese  East  Africa :  description  of, 
298 

Pratt :  his  negotiations  with  the  Filipi- 
nos, 315 

Prester,  John:  Covilhao  visits  the  court 
of,  39 

Pretoria:  named,  227;  occupied  by  the 
British   (1900),  233 

Pretorius,  President:  his  administration, 
227 

Prevost,  Sir  George:  governor  of  Can- 
ada, 154 

Prince  Edward  Island :  admitted  to  Ca- 
nadian union,  168 

Principe,  Island  of:  description  of,  298 

Purry,  John:  sketch  of,  112 

Purrysburg:  founded,  112 

Pursley :  exploiations  of,  130 


Q,  R 

Quebec :   founded,  63,  82 ;  taken  by  the 

English    (1759),   118 
Quebec  Act  (1774),  151 
Quebec  Convention,  The  (1864),  165 
Quebec,  Province  of:  created,  167;  elec- 
tion of   1878,   171  ;   election  of   1891, 
172;  election  of  1896,  173 
Queensland:    created,    196;    ratifies    the 

new  Constitution   (1899),  206 
Queenston :  battle  of   (1812),  154 
Quito :  made  part  of  New  Granada,  104 
Raffles,    Sir    Thomas    Stamford :    takes 
possession  of  Singapore,  251 ;   Eng- 
lish governor  of  the  Dutch  East  In- 
dies, 290 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter:  his  attempt  against 
Guiana,  58;  his  expeditions  to  Amer- 
ica, 84;   his  expedition  to  the  Wild 
Coast,  87;  holds  a  monopoly  of  wine 
in  England,  102 


INDEX 


425 


Recif:  founded,  105 

Reed,  Walter:  aids  in  stamping  out  yel- 
low fever  in  Cuba,  32Q 

Reunion  (Island  of  Bourbon):  Froncb 
policy  concerning,  100;  taken  by  tlie 
English   (1810),   143;  history  of,  279 

Revolution,  The  American,  127 

Revolution,  The  French,  30,    136 

Rhodes,  Cecil  J. :  organizes  British  South 
Africa  Company,  230 ;  responsible 
for  the  Jameson  Raid,  231 

Rhodesia :  sketch  of,  260 

Rice :  introduced  into  the  Carolinas,  78 

Riel,  Louis:  leads  rebellions  of  French 
half-breeds,  169,  173 

Rio  de  Oro:  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Rio  Janeiro:  increased  importance  of, 
tos;  taken  by  the  French  (1711), 
106 

Rio  Muni :  under  Spanish  rule,  299 

Rivera,  Primo  de:  concludes  treaty  with 
Filipino  insurgents,  314 

Rizal,  Jose:  sketch  of,  313:  exiled,  314 

Robe,  Major:  governor  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, 195 

Roberts,  Sir  Frederick  Sleigh  :  his  cam- 
paigns in  South  Africa,  233 

Roberval,  Franqois  de :  attempts  to  make 
settlements  in  America,  81 

Rochambeau,  Jean  Baptiste  Donaticn  de 
Vimeure,  Count  of:  his  campaign  in 
Hayti,  140 

Rodney,  Sir  George  Brydgcs :  takes 
Martinique,  118;  his  victory  off 
Guadeloupe,   128 

Royal  Council  of  the  Indies:  established, 

45 
Roman     Empire:     modern     civilization's 

debt   to   the,    7;    absorbs    Pluvnician 

and  Greek  colonies,   16 
Ro>al   Niger  Company:   sketch  of.  258 
Royal    Philippines    Company:    cliartcrcd, 

K\swick,  Peace  of  (1697),  76,  114 


Saigon:  occupied  by  tlie  French.  272 
St.    Bartholomew.   IsLind  of:   lii-tory  of, 

208 
St.  Charles:  battle  oi   (183;),  is*"' 
St.  Christopher:  settled,  68;  English  ex- 
pelled, 76 


St.  Croix,  Island  of:  under  Danish  gov- 
ernment, 297 

St.  Denis:  battle  of  (1837),  156 

St.  JMistachc:  battle  of  (1837),  156 

St.  Eustatius :  under  Dutch  rule,  7^ 

St.  Helena :  sketch  of,  263 

St.  John :  discovered,  49 

St.  Lucie :  French  policy  concerning,  100 

St  Paul,  Brazil :  founded,  94 

St.  Pierre:  history  of,  268;  destroyed 
(1902),  271 

St.  Sacrament:  battles  of  (1680),  95; 
(1705),  95 

St.  Thomas,  Island  of:  taken  by  the 
Danes,  7^ ;  history  of,  297 

St.  Thome,  Island  of:  under  Portuguese 
rule,  298 

St.  Vincent:  ceded  to  England,  120; 
seized  by  France   (1778),  128 

Saintc  Marie :  seized  by  France,  277 

Samoan  Islands :  part  of.  annexed  by 
Germany,  302;  Pago  Pago  ceded  to 
the  United  States,  321 

Sandwich  Islands:  discovered,  124;  his- 
tory of,  307 

San    Ildefonso,   Treaty  of    (i8or),  269 

San  Juan  Island:  under  Spanish  rule, 
209 

San  Salvador:  assaulted  by  the  Dutch, 
59 

Santiago  de  Cuba:  battle  of  (1898).  329 

Santo  Donn'ngo :  traces  of  pirates  in,  69; 
conquered  by  the  English,  71 ;  under 
F>ench  colonization,  72;  condition 
of,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  I'rcnch 
Revolution,  137;  insiuTcction  (1791), 
138;  tr.-ulc  of.  ruined,  2^^7 

Saratoga:  battle  of   (1777),  128 

Sarawak  :   sketcli  of.  255 

Saskatchewan,  rro\ince  of:  creatcil  and 
admittrd  to  tin;  Caiiridian  um'on.  170 

Schrcincr,  William  P.:  leads  .Xfrikander 
Bund,  j:,2 

Scliurnian,  J;icob  G. :  member  of  Phil- 
ippine conuni-.-ion.  316 

Sclini  I,  Si'.ltan  of  Turkey:  conquers 
I'gypt.  42 

Selkirk.  Thomas  Douglas.  Earl  of:  re- 
ceivc-i  grant  of  land  from  the  Hud- 
-^I'iU    r.ay   C(^mpany.    ifvS 

.Senegal  Ci'iiipaiiy.  bVcnch  :  oppo^--  .set- 
tlement of  .Swedes  in  .-Vfrica.   130 

Senegambia:   dc.-cription  of,  2S1 


426 


INDEX 


Seringapatam :  siege  of   (i799)>  144 

Seven  Years'  War,  76 

Seward,  William  Henry:  acquires 
Alaska  for  the  United  States,  305 

Seychelles :  taken  by  England,  263 

Sharp,  Granville :  his  efforts  in  behalf 
of  slaves,  130 

Shepstone,  Sir  Theophilus :  his  mission 
to  South  Africa,  229 

Siam :  concludes  treaty  with  France,  273 

Sierra  Leone :  made  a  free  colony  for 
negroes,  130;  sketch  of,  257 

Singapore:  growth  of,  251 

Slavery:  introduction  of  negroes  into 
the  West  Indies,  74 ;  agitation 
against,  130;  French  emancipation 
of  slaves,  134;  slave-trade  abolished 
at  the  Cape,  221 ;  slave-trade  in  the 
West  Indies,  238;  slave-trade  abol- 
ished by  England,  239;  abolished  in 
English  colonies,  240;  slave-trade 
abolished  by  the  United  States,  240; 
slave-trade  and  slavery  abolished  by 
Denmark,  297;  abolishing  of,  in 
Cuba,  327 

Smith,  Adam :  writings  of,  134 

Society  Islands :  made  a  P'rench  protec- 
torate, 276 

Sofala :  factory  founded  at,  46 

Sokotra,  Island  of:  acquired  by  Eng- 
land. 252 

Somali  Coast  Protectorate,  British :  de- 
scription of,  262 

Somali  Coast  Protectorate,  French :  gov- 
ernment of,  282 

Somaliland,  Italian:  description  of,  300 

Somcrs,  Sir  George :  takes  possession  of 
the  Bermudas,  249 

Somcrs,  John,  Baron  Somers:  directs 
the  Board  of  Trade  and  Commerce, 
89 

Soulh  Africa:  history  of,  218 

South  Africa  Company,  British :  see 
British  South  Africa  Company 

South   African   Republic:   formed,   226 

South  Australia:  organised,  190;  rati- 
fies the  new  Constitution  (1899), 
206 

South  Sea  Company :  sketch  of,  103 

.Southland,  New  Zealand  :  formed,  213 

Spanish-American  War,  329 

Spooner  Amendment   (1901),  319 

Stamp  y\ct,  127 


Stirling,  William  Alexander,  Earl  of: 
receives  grant  of  Nova  Scotia,  83 

Straits  Settlements:  history  of,  251 

Sturt,  Sir  Charles :  his  explorations  in 
Australia,  187 

Succession,  War  of  Spanish,  106 

Succession,  War  of  Austrian,  107 

Sudan :  description  of,  262 

Suez  Canal:  opened,  224 

Sumatra:  settled  by  the  Dutch,  56;  his- 
tory of,  289 

Sumner,  Charles :  opposes  annexation  of 
West  Indian  islands,  322 

Surat:  obtained  by  the  French  (1668), 
114 

Surinam :  settled,  87 

Swan  River  Colony:  see  Western  Aus- 
tralia 

Swaziland :  sketch  of,  259 

Sydenhain,  Charles  Powlett  Thompson, 
Lord :  his  administration  as  gov- 
ernor of  Canada,  158 

Sydney,  Australia :  convict  settlement 
established  at,  132;  settled,  182 

Sydney  Conference,  The  (1880),  203 


Tache,  fitienne  Paschal :  at  the  Quebec 
convention,   165 

Taft,  William  Howard :  member  of  Phil- 
ippine commission,  318 

Tainatave:  bombardment  of  (1883),  278 

Taranaki,  New  Zealand:  receives  its 
name,  214 

Tasmania:  receives  its  name,  189;  rati- 
fies the  new  Constitution  (1899), 
206;  see  also  Van  Diemen's  Land 

Temati :    taken    by   the    English    (1810), 

143 

Terra  Anstralis :  Cook  searches  for,  123 

Terra  Firma:  conquest  of,  50;  made  part 
of  New  Granada,   104 

Terre  Napoleon:  sec  Australia 

Teutons :  characteristics  of,  7,  25  ;  navi- 
gation of,  10 

Tilley,  Samuel  Leonard :  at  the  Quebec 
convention,   165 

Tippoo  Sultan :  at  war  with  the  Eng- 
lish,  145 

Tobago:  ceded  to  England,  120;  restored 


INDEX 


427 


to  France    (1783),   128;   annexed  to 

Trinidad,  246 
Tonkin :  under  French  rule,  273 
Tordesillas,  Treaty  of  (1494),  43 
Toussaint    I'Ouverture :    leads    insurrec- 
tion  in   Hayti,   138;   made  president 

of  Hayti,  139;  death  of,  140 
Townshcnd  Acts,  The  (1767),  127 
Trade   and    Plantations,    Committee   of: 

formed,  89 
Transvaal :     declared     annexed     to     the 

Cape,   233;   see  also   South   African 

Republic 
Trinidad  :  early  conditions  in,  'j'^i ',  growth 

of,  237;  history  of,  246 
Tristan  da  Cunha:  taken  by  the  British, 

263 
Troyes,    de :    his    campaign    against   the 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  86 
Tsimandroho,    King    of    the    Sakalaves : 

concludes    treaty    with    the    French, 

V7 
Tuamotu    Islands:    under    French    rule, 

276 
Tubuai  Islands:  under  French  rule,  276 
Tunis:  under  French  protection,  280 
Tupac  Amaru :  leads  revolt  in  Peru,  133 
Tupper,  Sir  Charles :  leads  movement  in 

Nova  Scotia  for  union  w'ith  Canada, 

164;  at  the  Quebec  convention,  165 
Tutuila:  ceded  to  the  United  States,  322 


U,  V 

Uganda :  description  of,  261 

Union,  Act  of   (1840),  157 

United  Company  of   Merchants  Trading 

to  the  East  Indies;  founded,  63;  end 

of,  141 
UtrcTJit,   Peace  of   (17T3).  85.   T07 
Vaillant,  Cnmtc  Jean   Pjaptiste  Philibcrt: 

his  work  in  Africa,  130 
Vancouver,   Cicors:;e :   \-oya,t;es   of,    ijq 
Vancouver  Island:  joined  lo  P>rilisli  Co- 
lumbia,  T70 
Van  Diemen's  Land:  settlement  (-^i.  132; 

history  of,    188;    see  a!<o  Tasmania 
Venables,       Admiral:       his       expedition 

against  Santo  Domingo,  71 
Venezuelan    Boundary    Dispute     (1899), 

248 
Venice  :  the  colonial  system  of,  40 


Vera  Cruz:  taken  by  pirates  (1683),  68 
Verazzano    (Verrazano),    Giovanni    da: 

his  voyage  to  America,  49,  8r 
Versailles,  Peace  of   (1783),  128 
Victoria,  Australia:  named,  189;  ratifies 

the  new  Constitution  (1899),  206 
Victoria,   Hong-Kong:   foimded,  255 
Vieyra,  John  Ferdinand  de :   leads   Bra- 
zilian revolt,  61 
Villegaignon,  Nicolas  Durand,  Chevalier 
de:    attemi)ts   to   make   a   settlement 
in  Brazil,  82 
Virgil:  his  description  of  Carthage,  21 
Virginia,  State  of:  slavery  conditions  in, 
75 


W 


Wadai :  under  French  protection,  280 
Wadstrom :   leads   settlement  of   Swedes 

in  Africa,  130 
Waitangi,  Treaty  of  (1840),  21  r 
Wakefield,  Fdward  Gibbon :  colony  sys- 
tem  of,    190 
Walfish  Bay:  sketch  of,  259 
Walker,  John  Grimes :  member  of  Pan- 
ama commission,  2Z2> 
Warner,  Thomas :   makes  settlement  on 

St.  Christopher,  6)8 
Wandewash:  battle  of   (1759),   119 
Webster,    Daniel:    recognizes    the    inde- 
pendence  of   the    Hawaiian    Islands, 
308 
Wellington,  New  Zealand:  settled.  2ir 
West  India  CcMupaiiy.  Dutch:  chartered, 

59;  y ketch  i^\.  "j}, 
West   India    Coiiipniiy.   French:   incorpo- 
rated   (  H)J5),  (.S.  ,'<8 
West  India   Islands:  (Icscription  of,  it^ 
West   Indies,  Danish:   hi^tdry  of,  207 
\\"cst    In(li(.'<.   Dutch:   (k'^i-Tiption   of,   285 
We-^t      Indie;,      i".r,'-,di-^h :      condition      ^A 
(i77f)),   110;   etVect  of  the   American 
l\i'\(iIntion    on,    l,;i 
We>tcrn    Australia:    fonndcrl,    187;    gov- 
ernment   (if.     100:    r;itities    llu-    new 
Constitution    (  looo).   207 
Westkuid,   Xew   Ze:dand :    formed,   213 
Weyler    y    Xicol;ui,    Valeriano,    Marquis 
of    TeneritTe :    his    administration    in 
Cuba.  32S 
Wilberforce.    William:    his    ctTorts    for 
the  abolition  of  slave-trade,  238 


428 


INDEX 


Wildman,  Edwin :  his  negotiations  with 

the  Filipinos,  315 
Willekens,  Jacob :  assaults  San  Salvador, 

59 

William  III,  King  of  England :  condition 
of  the  colonies  under,  8g 

Witt,  John  de:  advocates  colonial  enter- 
prise, 65 

Windward  Islands :  government  of,  246 

Winter,  Sir  James :  fall  of  his  ministry, 

Wolfe,  James :  his  expedition  against 
Quebec,  118 

Wood,  Leonard :  made  military  com- 
mander of  Sulu,  318;  his  adminis- 
tration in  Cuba,  329 


Wren,  Captain :  restores  the  English  in 
St.  Christopher,  76 


X,  Y,  Z 

Xavier,  Saint  Francis :  in  Goa,  48 
York,  Canada :  taken  by  the  Americans, 

154  .     _ 

Yorktown,  Virginia:  Cornwallis  surren- 
ders at,  128 

Yukon,  Province  of:  organized,  170 

Zanjon,  Peace  of  (1878),  328 

Zanzibar:  secured  by  the  Portuguese,  46 

Zanzibar  Protectorate:  description  of, 
262 


105       A.     120 


150       IJ      165 


105       C       150 


120      D       105 


THE  WOKED 

ON  MERCATOR'S  PROJECTION. 


loi      ^-V     i~" 


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